Constitutional laws Lecture notes

 

Constitutional laws

Lecture notes

2015/2016

by: Prof Idiris Mohamed

CONTENT OF THE BOOK

1.     Introduction

                                           I.            What is law…?

                                        II.             What is a legal system…?

                                     III.             Sources of law...

2.     What is a Constitution?

                                          I.            classifications

A)-Written and unwritten;

B)-Rigid and flexible;

C)-Supreme and subordinate;

D)-Federal and Unitary;

E)-Separated powers and fused powers; and

F)-Republican and Monarchical

3.     Constitutionalism

       I.            THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT OF CONSTITUTIONALISM

    II.            Constitutionalism vs. constitutional questions

 III.            Development of Constitutionalism

 IV.            Regulations in a Constitution

    V.            Difference between a Constitution & Other Laws

4.      Constitution‐Making Process

                                            i.            Basic Elements of a Constitutional Process

                                          ii.            Public Participation and Ownership

                                        iii.            Constitutional Commissions

                                            i.            Adoption of the Constitution

                                          ii.            The Constitution & International Law

                                            i.            International Treaties

                                          ii.            The Power to Deliberate and to Ratify International Treaties

                                            i.            The Executive

                                          ii.            Involvement of the Legislature

                                           I.            Sharia and the Constitution

                                        II.            Formal Aspects of Structuring a Constitution

5.     The Notion of State

                                           I.            The building blocks of the State

                                                                    i.            The personal (people),

                                                                  ii.            the space (territory)

                                                                iii.            Organizational - bureaucratic (sovereignty).

                                                                iv.            The shapes of State

6.     FORMS OF STATES

                                           I.            The Police State

                                        II.            The Liberal State

                                     III.            The welfare state

                                     IV.            The authoritarian state

                                        V.            The socialist state

7.     The Government

                                             I.            Definition and composition

                                          II.            The formation of the Government

                                       III.            The Head of the State has an obligation to accept them.

                                       IV.            The Council of Ministers

                                          V.            Other government bodies

                                       VI.            High Commissioners and special commissioners

                                    VII.            The acts with which is performed government functions and sectors of intervention

1)    The constitutional bodies:  especially the electoral body

                   I.            The electoral body

                II.            Article. 48 defines the character of the vote:

2)      President of the Republic

                    i.            Election procedures and duration:

                  ii.            President of the Republic".

                iii.            Article. 84 foresees the eligibility requirements and defining its status:

                iv.            Temporary impediment and deputizing

8.     The Parliament

                                            i.            The prerogatives of the Chambers

                                          ii.            The organization of the Chambers

                                        iii.            The operation of the Chambers

                                        iv.            The time frame in which the Chambers perform their activity is divided into:

                                          v.            The status of parliamentarians

                                        vi.            The joint sitting of Parliament

                                      vii.            The functions of Parliament

                                    viii.            The electoral functions

                                        ix.            The functions of the courts and prosecution

                                          x.            Functions purely instrumental

3)      The legislative decrees

4)      Decree Law

5)      The decrees adopted by the Government in case of war

6)      The regulations of the constitutional organs

7)      Executive Regulations

9.       

Introduction

Before defining constitution we need to see what is law and what is a legal system and sources of law

As you begin your study of the law, you would like to understand what a law is and what its relationship to a Legal system is.

So, a law is a set of rules that guides the behavior of a society. It is some-thing that must be obeyed. When those rules are broken, rule breakers are punished with penalties.

On the other hand, a legal system is an organization of social and government control that creates and regulates order in a society through laws. It is this organization that regulates the system of rules and regulations designed to encourage good behavior and to discourage negative conduct.

A legal system also includes rule making bodies (such as legislatures) that make laws and tribunals (such as courts) that review and decide legal disputes.

These rule making bodies are part of a government, which is responsible for denying laws and regulating its legal system.

There are many types of legal systems. They differ from State to State, and from country to country.

The legal system in Somalia has its roots in the Italian law as Somalia was an Italian colony and Shari Law. 

The legal system in the United States has deep roots in English law, as the United States was originally a British colony. As a colony, the United States was under the legal control of the British government and subject to the English legal system known as common law.

Common law is a legal system based on fairness, custom, and common sense.

Historically, judges appointed by the King of England would travel throughout the country and apply the concepts of common law to resolve disputes. Their decisions were the basis for a legal concept called stare decisis, which means that judges decided similarly located disputes based on previously settled disputes.

A decision of a previously settled dispute is known as precedent, which forms the basis for resolving new, but similar disputes. As such, when the first settlers came to the United States from England, they brought their legal system with them.

Besides the United Kingdom (Great Britain, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales), other countries that follow common law traditions include Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and most parts of India, which were also former British colonies.

Another unique characteristic of common law is the concept of equity.

Equity is used by judges whenever the law does not provide an adequate remedy for a dispute. In these situations, judges will use their equitable powers to make a decision to do the right thing in the eyes of the law. In early courts, there would be a separate court s called a Court of Chancery to make decisions based on equity. In most States today, those distinctions no longer exist and courts of law have equitable powers also. 

In modern day courts, equitable remedies would include legal resolutions such as injunctions or specific performance.

An injunction is a court order to prevent a party from performing an action that would cause irreparable harm to an aggrieved party if the party is not stopped from performing the action. Injunctions can also force a party to perform an act if the court feels forcing the party to perform the action is essential to justice.

Specific performance is a court order that forces a party to complete a contract. It is a remedy often used in breach of contract disputes when a party refuses to follow the requirements of a contract, such as transferring real estate.

Many countries follow a different type of legal process called civil law or a civil code system.

Legal disputes in civil law countries are resolved by applying a series of laws called statutes or codes that have been passed by a legislative body. Judges in civil law countries administer the laws rather than interpret the laws.

It is a more rigid legal process than common law, which tries to be flexible based on the facts presented in a dispute, and that makes decisions on interpreting laws through court decisions and precedent.

There are also countries governed in whole or part by religious law, which applies to individuals in both their private and public lives. Among this state we can re-call Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

The majority of countries that follow this type of  legal system obey Islamic law (Sharia). One of the questions which has caused considerable argument among modern thinkers is the question of relationship between the religion and the State in Islam-in other words, the relationship of Islam to politics.

We feel that in this connection enough explanation has been given on the extent of correlation between Islam and government or to state it differently, between belief an politics, or the religion and the state.

We will therefore, refrain from going into many details on this question.

Sources of the Law

The problem of sources does not assume a particular aspect : it is a basic argument/dispute which is behind the study/revision of law, and therefore , does not belong to a specific sphere of law .

As there are legal norms, there are also sources.

The sources remain the origins of the legal system;

Speaking of the sources of law is the same as referring to the institution of the legal system.

The sources of legal norms are those facts to which the legal system is linking, through appropriate norms, the effect to create, modify or extinguish legal norms.

From this definition we can assume that the sources are simple facts not legal facts;

Each legal system has its own rules on legal production , because without them , and , without their practical application , the legal system would not arise or take place, would not be completed.

The rules on legal production can obviously change over time, corresponding to the mutations of the establishment of the entity, which is inherent or inbuilt in the system.

The sources of law can be immediate or direct and mediate d or indirect.

Immediate sources are:

a)-Formal laws: the formal laws are measures and acts adopted by the typical organs of the State that, according to the Constitution, exercise the legislative function. In the State legal system, formal laws capable of being sources of law are distinguished in, according to the process of formation, the following way:

-Constitution;

-Constitutional Law enacted by the Assembly;

c) -Ordinary Law approved by the Chambers;

Mediated sources are:

a)-Material laws: the material laws are the measure contains legal rules and are issued, for delegation of legislative power, by organs of State other than those before mentioned, in particular:

1)-Decrees of the Head of State under the parliamentary delegation to the Government or of responsibility of the Government in extra-ordinary cases of necessity and urgency;

The Law

The law is the principal among the main written sources and constitute  the normative act emanated by the legislative bodies of the State .

As such, it has various forms of requirements that are established by the rules (norma).

The law contains a general and abstract command , a common rule of life applicable to all citizens or to a broad category of them and an undetermined number of similar cases and indefinite .

The law expresses what should be the conduct or behavior of the State , its  legal entities and citizens;

It must be recognized that the criteria of generality and the abstractness constitute the foundation of any definition of the law.

Generality and abstractness are precisely its distinctive characteristics.

It is general not because it is intended to determine the behavior of all , many or few, but intended to determine a category abstractly determined, in all similar cases that will occur in the future.

Newness or novelty is another requirement of the laws; in the case that the law places norms that did not exist before, or when repeated materially a provision already in force, it changes the source and, therefore, renews.

It is worth recalling some basic distinctions. A first distinction is the one which arises between: constitutional laws and ordinary laws.

                                          constitution

What is a Constitution?

The concept of a constitution dates to the city-states of ancient Greece. The philosopher Aristotele (322-384 a.c), in his work Politics, analyzed over 150 Greek   constitutions. He described a constitution as creating the frame upon which the government and laws of society are built:

So in lay terms, a constitution can be defined as a set of legal norms that define the fundamental political principles and establish the structure , procedure, powers and functions of all organs of a state. So every organization needs a constitution to define the powers , rights and duties of the organization’s members.

Most national constitutions also guarantee certain rights to the citizens and other human beings present in a  country. 

Usually, constitutions are codified in a written document. 

Saudi Arabia’s constitutional order consists of its Basic Law (Basic System of Governance) which is accompanied by four decrees of the same rank, governing  specific state organs. 

In  Germany,  the  drafters  of  the  Basic  Law  avoided  the  term  “constitution” because they considered the Basic Law as a merely provisional docu-ment that was to be superseded or replaced by the constitution of a future united Germany. 

After reunification, the Basic Law remained in force and the name was kept (although major amendments were made).

In  contrast,  Saudi  Arabia’s  avoidance  or escaping of the  term  “constitution” is  based  on  religious  considerations

While the late King issued  the ‘Basic System of Governance”  per decree in 1992, Saudi  cultural and religious  views disapproved of any reference  to  “constitution” other than the  Quran itself and the practice of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. 

It should be noted, however, that also in Islamic countries many drafters of constitutions do not share the religious rreservations or fears about the terminology, as  can be  seen from the use of the term “constitution” in Afghanistan, Iran or Iraq. 

Classification of constitutions

When looking for the salient characteristics of the constitution, it is helpful to bear in mind the range of possible classifications which can be applied to any constitution.

Constitutionalists like Professor KC identified the following classifications:

A)-Written and unwritten;

B)-Rigid and flexible;

C)-Supreme and subordinate;

D)-Federal and Unitary;

E)-Separated powers and fused powers; and

F)-Republican and Monarchical

A)-Written and unwritten constitutions.

1)-Written constitution:

A written constitution is one contained within a single document or a series of documents , with or without amendments, defining the basic rules of the state.

The origin of written constitution lie in the American War  of independence 1775-1783 and French Revolution 1789.

More recent written constitutions derive from the grant- or devolution- of legislative power from previously imperial powers to former colonies and dominions , whether secured as a result of peaceful settlement or violent revolution.

Written constitution is one which is found in one or more than one legal documents duly enacted in the form of laws. It is precise, definite and systematic. It is the result of the conscious and deliberate efforts of the people. It is framed by a representative body duly elected by the people at a particular period in history.

It is always promulgated on a specific date in history. The Constitution of India, for example, is a written constitution. It was framed by a representative Constituent Assembly and was promulgated on a definite date, i.e., 26th January 1950.

The Constitution of Somalia, for example, is a written constitution. It was framed and approved by a representative Constituent Assembly on a definite date, i.e., 21^st June 1960.

A written constitution is generally rigid and a procedure separate from that of enacting ordinary law is provided for its amendment or revision.

In other words a distinction between constitutional law and ordinary law is maintained or continued. The first is regarded as superior to the second.

Modern written constitutions owe their origin to the charters of liberty granted by the kings in Middle Ages.

But the first written constitution framed by a representative constituent assembly was that of the United States of America. This example was followed by France.

During the 19th century a number of states framed their constitutions, all of which were written, with the exception of the constitution of England.

2)-The "Unwritten Constitution" is a constitution not embodied in a single document but based chiefly on custom and precedent as expressed in statutes and judicial decisions

The constitution of the United Kingdom is the sum of laws and principles that make up the body politic of the United Kingdom.

It concerns both the relationship between the individual and the state, and the functioning of the legislature, the executive and judiciary.

Unlike many other nations, the UK has no single constitutional document. This is sometimes expressed by stating that it has an uncodified or "unwritten" constitution.

Much of the British constitution is embodied in written documents, within statutes, court judgments, works of authority and treaties. 

An unwritten constitution is one in which most of the principles of the government have never been enacted in the form of laws. It consists of customs, conventions, traditions, and some written laws bearing different dates. It is unsystematic, indefinite and unprecise. Such a constitution is not the result of conscious and deliberate efforts of the people.

It is generally the result of historical development. It is never made by a representative constituent assembly at a definite stage of history, nor is it promulgated on a particular date.

The constitution of England is a classical example of an unwritten constitution. It is mainly the result of historical growth. The foundation of the English Constitution was laid in the 13th century by King John, who issued the first charter of British freedom known as the Magna Charta. Since then it has been in the process of making through conventions and usages.

The Constitution of England is typical example of an unwritten constitution. The major part of the constitution relating to the powers of the Monarch, the Cabinet, the Parliament and mutual relations between the various organs of the Government are all the result of Convention.

Although the major portion of the Constitution of England is based on conventions and traditions yet there are many written laws in it like the Magna Charta 1215, the Petition of Rights 1628, the Bill of Rights 1689, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, the Acts of Settlement 1701, various Reforms Act of 1832, 1867, 1884, Parliamentary Act of 1911, and the Crown proceedings Act, 1947, etc.,

B)-Rigid and flexible constitution

This classification rests primarily on the question whether or not constitutions can be amended with ease.

The framers of a written constitution, will seek to protect its constitutional provisions from amendment or repeal or cancel.

That is to say the constitution will stipulate or lay down stringent or strict procedures to be followed  in any attempt to amend the provision of the constitution;

Entrenchment may take several forms, but its central characteristics is that it either prevents or makes difficult amendment or repeal.

1)-Rigid Constitution

A rigid constitution is one which cannot be amended, in the manner in which ordinary laws are passed amended or repealed. If a special procedure or organ is needed for its amendment, it is a rigid constitution.

As Gettle says, "Its laws are thus fixed and emanate from a source different from that of ordinary laws, which must keep within the boundaries fixed by the constitution". A law which the constitution forbids or a law made by an organ not empowered to do so by the constitution shall be an unconstitutional law.

Ordinary legislature of the country is not competent to amend rigid constitution in the ordinary legislative procedure.

Under a rigid constitution distinction is always maintained between a constitutional law and an ordinary law, since a constitutional law is regarded as superior to an ordinary law.

There is a special procedure for constitutional amendment.

Ordinary law in U.S.A. can be passed by a simple majority of the Congress, whereas the constitutional laws can be amended only by the agreement of two thirds majority of the Congress and three fourths of the states.

The Swiss constitution is still more rigid. An amendment needs to be approved by the Cantons and the electorate or voters through referendum. It must be, thus approved by majority of all the voters casting their vote and by majority of such votes in majority of Cantons.

Art 133/8 of the Somali Federal Constitution  proposes the following constitutional amendment: The Federal Parliament adopts a proposed amendment only after approving it on a final vote in the House of the People by at least two-thirds (2/3) of the existing members, and on a final vote in the Upper House of the Federal Parliament by at least two-thirds (2/3) of the existing members.

2)-FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION:

A flexible constitution is one which can be amended in an ordinary legislative process by the ordinary parliament.

All constitutional amendments can be made by a simple majority of the parliament.

No distinction is made between the constitution making authority and the ordinary law making authority.

No law is unconstitutional if passed by the Parliament. It is a sovereign body, at once enjoying the ordinary law making powers and constitutional law making powers. It is at once a legislature and a constituent assembly.

A flexible constitution is one that is easily influenced by change and is readily amended by general legislation. 

Flexible constitutions are commonly seen in republics and democracies.

These documents are easy to amend and are open to updates to keep them relevant to modern trends and social values.

A flexible constitution is also referred to as an elastic constitution because its meanings are often stretched to apply conditions in the current document to current affairs without requiring any amendments.

In the event that an amendment is necessary, the process by which it is carried out is easy to understand and offers a clear guideline for making these changes permanent.

The efficiency of flexible constitutions makes them popular among the people.

It also allows for governments to bend or bow in the face of extreme crises and circumstances without having to break laws national frameworks.

The constitution of England is a typical example of a flexible constitution.

The British Parliament is competent to pass, amend or repeal any constitutional law in an ordinary legislative process as both constitutional laws and ordinary laws are treated alike.

The United States has also a flexible constitution because it contains amendments and has a set of process by which additions are accepted in a standardized and straightforward manner.

The more convoluted or difficult an amendment process, the more rigid it is considered.

C)-Supreme and subordinate constitutions

A supreme constitution refers to a state in which the legislative powers of the governing body are unlimited.

A supreme constitution is not subject to any external superior force.

While a subordinate constitution is drafted and introduced in a country by an external sovereign power, so could be amended by that external power.

At the core of the distinction is whether the constitution provide the highest form of law in the land. For example subordinate constitutions can be found in federal systems and in countries which have gained partial independence but are a limited government.

The UK constitution is viewed as supreme. Although, the constitutional impact of UK membership of the European Union (EU) is debated. It can be argued that UK sovereignty is limited by EU treaties but it can be seen this limitation is voluntary, under an Act of  Parliament - European Communities Act 1972 and therefore does not alter supremacy.

D)-Federal and unitary constitutions

1)-Federal constitution:

In many states, for example, the United States of America, Canada, Australia, Malaysia and Somalia exists a division of powers between central government and the individual states or regions or provinces which make up the federation.

The powers divided between the federal government and states or provinces/regions will be clearly set down in the basic document.

Some powers will be reserved exclusively to the federal government (most notably, such matters as defense and state security as per art 54 of the STFC);

Some powers will be allocated exclusively to the regional government (such as planning and raising of local taxation as per art 52 of the STFC );

Other powers will be seized on the basis of partnership, powers being given to each level of government with intervening power reserved for central government.     

The common feature of all federal states is the sharing of power between centre and regions, each having an area of exclusive power, other powers being shared on some defined bases.

Equally common to all federations is the idea that the written constitution is superior over government and legislature and that their respective powers are not only defined by the constitution but are also controlled  by the constitution, which will be interpreted and approved by a Supreme Court.   

2)-Unitary constitution:

The constitution of United Kingdom presents a very different agreement.

The state is unitary and there is no defining written constitution controlling the powers of government or of the legislature.

Instead of a written constitution, there exists a sovereign legislature body (parliament), which represents the ultimate law making power in the state.

E)-Separated powers and fused powers

1)-Separated powers:

The separation of powers is fundamental constitutional concept, so the powers vested in the institutions of the state-legislative, executive and judiciary- should not be concentrated in the hands of any one institution. The object of such separation is to provide checks on the exercise of power by each institution and to prevent the potential for tyranny or cruelty which might otherwise exist.

A constitution with clearly defined boundaries to power, is one in conformity with the doctrine or policy of separation of powers. This arrangement is achievable under a written constitution   although it is open to question whether, under any constitution, a pure separation of powers is possible, or indeed is desirable

2)-Fused power

At the other end of the spectrum or field of constitutional arrangements from a pure separation of powers is a totalitarian state or purely monarchical state. Under such a constitution will be found a single figure , or single body , possessed with the sole power to propose and enact law, to administer the state, and both to apply and to adjudicate or deliver judgment upon the law.

Under the unwritten constitution, like the one of the United Kingdom, these separation of powers is difficult to ascertain and evaluate.

There is undeniably a distinct legislative body, executive, and judiciary, each exercising differing powers.

F)-Republican and monarchical constitutions

1)-Republican constitution:

A Republican constitution is a state having as its figure head a democratically elected President, answerable or responsible to the electorate and to the constitution.

Presidential office is both a symbol of statehood and the repository of many powers. 

In the name of the state, the President will enter into treaties , make declarations of war, and represent the state on formal international and domestic occasions.

The President has responsibility for proposing legislation to give effect to the political programmed which gave him the mandate of the people. We can take as an example of Republican constitution the United States of America .

2)-Monarchical constitution:

Looking at the United Kingdom as an example of a Western democracy based on constitutional monarchy, the position of the head of state is very different from USA.

Queen E. II is the head of state and all acts of government are undertaken in the name of the Crown by the elected government .

This statement implies that great power is accorded to the Queen, but this power is mainly exercised by the leader of political party who at any one time occupies the office of the Prime Minister, whether he or she is a Labor or Conservative PM, for he or she will be exercising all powers in the Queen’s name.

Unlike the position of the head of state under the United States’ constitution, however, the Queen is, by definition, unelected and unaccountable to the electorate  in any democratic sense.

The Crown enjoys enormous legal-theoretical power but little practical power, save unexceptional circumstances.

In addition to representing the symbolic figure-head, the role of the Crown may be said to be protective.

The Queen has the power to warn and advise the PM.

While the role of the Monarchy is a matter for contemporary debate, the continuity and longevity of monarchy remains a distinguishing feature of the UK’s constitution.   

Constitutionalism

THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT OF CONSTITUTIONALISM

Constitutionalism is the principles which governs or administer the legality of government acts.

By constitutionalism is meant – in relation to constitutions written and unwritten – conformity or compliance with the broad philosophical principles within a state.

Constitutionalism means something far more important than the idea of ‘legality’ which need official behavior to be in accordance with pre-fixed legal rules.

Constitutionalism is "a complex of ideas, attitudes or feelings, and patterns of behavior that the authority of government derives from and is limited by a fundamental law;

A political society is constitutional to the degree that it "controls system of power control for the protection of the interests and liberties of the citizens including those that may be in the minority".

As described by political scientist and constitutional researcher David Fell man:

Constitutionalism demonstrates publicly the desirability of the rule of law while opposed to rule by the arbitrary judgment or mere order of public officials….

The central element of the concept of constitutionalism is that in political society, government officials are not free to do anything they please in any manner they choose;

They are bound to observe both the limitations on power and the procedures which are set out in the supreme constitutional law of the community.

It may therefore be said that the criteria of constitutionalism is the concept of limited government under a higher law.

Constitutionalism has prescriptive (dictatorial) and descriptive (explanatory) uses.

Law professor Gerhard Casper confined this aspect of the term in noting that: "Constitutionalism has both descriptive and prescriptive implication.

Used descriptively it refers chiefly to the historical struggle for constitutional recognition of the people's right to 'consent' and certain other rights, freedoms, and privileges.

Used prescriptively its meaning incorporates those features of government seen as the essential elements of the … Constitution.

Descriptive

One example of constitutionalism's descriptive use is law professor Bernard Schwartz's 5 volume compilation of sources seeking to trace the origins of the U.S. Bill of Rights.

Beginning with English experience going back to Magna Cart (1215), Schwartz explores the presence and development of ideas of individual freedoms and constitutional rights through colonial charters and legal understanding.

Then, in carrying the story forward, he discovers revolutionary declarations and constitutions, documents and judicial decisions of the Confederation period and the formation of the federal Constitution.

Finally, he turns to the debates over the federal Constitution's ratification that ultimately provided mounting pressure for a federal bill of rights. While almost not presenting a "straight-line“, the explanation illustrates the historical struggle to recognize and protect constitutional rights and principles in a constitutional order.

Prescriptive

In contrast to describing what constitutions are, a prescriptive approach addresses what a constitution should be.

As presented by Canadian philosopher Will Waluchow, constitutionalism represents the idea that government can and should be legally limited in its powers, and that its authority depends on its observing these limitations.

This idea brings with it a host of difficult questions of interest not only to legal scholars, but to anyone keen to explore the legal and philosophical foundations of the state.

Fundamental law empowering and limiting government

One of the most salient features of constitutionalism is that it describes and set both the sources and the limits of government power.

William H. Hamilton has captured this dual aspect by noting that constitutionalism "is the name given to the trust which men repose in the power to keep a government in order.

Constitutionalism vs. constitutional questions

The study of constitutions is not necessarily the same with the study of constitutionalism.

Although frequently conflated, there are crucial differences.

A discussion of this difference appears in legal historian Christian G. Fritz's American Sovereigns: the People and America’s Constitutional Tradition before the Civil War, a study of the early history of American constitutionalism. Fritz comments that an analyst could approach or draw near the study of historic events focusing on issues that involve "constitutional questions" and that this differs from a focus that involves "questions of constitutionalism.”

Constitutional questions involve the analyst in examining how the constitution was interpreted and applied to distribute power and authority as the new nation struggled with problems of war and peace, taxation and representation.

However, these political and constitutional controversies also created questions of constitutionalism:

-how to identify/name the sovereign or head of state;

-what powers the sovereign possessed, and

-How one recognized when that sovereign acted.

Unlike constitutional questions, questions of constitutionalism could not be answered by reference to given constitutional text or even judicial opinions.

Rather, they were open-ended questions drawing upon challenging views Americans developed after Independence about the sovereignty of the people and the ongoing role of the people to monitor the constitutional order that rested on their sovereign authority.

A similar distinction was drawn by British constitutional scholar A.V. Dicey in assessing Britain's unwritten constitution.

Dicey noted a difference between the "conventions of the constitution" and the "law of the constitution."

The "essential distinction" between the two concepts was that the law of the constitution was made up of "rules enforced or recognized by the Courts," making up "a body of 'laws' in the proper sense of that term."

In contrast, the conventions of the constitution consisted "of customs, practices, maxims, or principles which are not enforced or recognized by the Courts" yet they "make up a body not of laws, but of constitutional or political ethics.

Development of Constitutionalism

In order to make adequate choices when drafting a constitution it is important to understand  the modern concept of a constitution and the implications that the concept of constitutionalism has for the legal system of a country.

An overview of the history of constitutionalism in the West  as well as Islamic countries may help in furthering this understanding. 

When deciding for a constitution, a population always transforms policy choices into law. 

These choices usually reflect the country's distinctive history and its specific social, economic and cultural conditions. 

For instance, a seafaring (marine)nation might want to address maritime issues in its  national constitution; or a people that have just freed themselves from the yoke of tyranny  might opt for particularly flat or horizontal hierarchies

Additionally,  the  constitutional  choices  of  a  country  may  also  be  influenced  by  its  earlier  constitutions, or by the political thinking of its founders. 

A good example for the latter is the U.S. American Constitution (Madison, Hamilton, Adams and another good example is for the Constitutional choices of Somalia which was influenced by political thinking of the politicians of SOMALIA.

In many countries, in particular on the African continent, constitutionalism has come along with decolonization;

On one hand the people’s exercise of their right to self-determination aimed  at gaining independence and discarding the colonial powers. 

On the other hand, this  exercise  of  the  people's  right  to  self‐determination  can  be  seen  as  a  step  towards  constitutionalism. 

Contemporary western researchers who hold liberal principles see it as the primary function of constitutions t to limit the scope of governmental power and to describe the method for its exercise, thereby safeguarding the citizens' rights to the largest possible extent.

Constitutions typically achieve these functions through the separation of powers (see Montesquieu), the incorporation of democratic principles and some form of judicial review.

Certain researchers interpret constitutions as a "social contract" between the individuals of a given society: In order to better pursue their common goals;

The individuals voluntarily agree to establish an orders,   thereby founding a  state.  This order creates obligations between the individuals and the representatives of the common power structures. 

These obligations derive their legitimacy from the agreement of the people. The legal recognition of these obligations is, in the terminology of legal scholars, the constitution. 

Early scholars following this theoretical  approach put emphasis on the aspect that the individuals have to submit to a strong power in order  to receive protection against (external) enemies and (internal) crime (e.g. Hobbes, Locke). 

Later  scholars constant worry rather the voluntary aspect : Individuals organize themselves in a certain because they realize that they benefit from the order created by the social contract (e.g.  Rousseau, Rawls). 

It should be added, that at any rate, the social contract is purely theoretical or imaginary and not meant to reflect historical development. 

Some traditional scholars of constitutional law saw constitutions mainly as a manifestation or sign of antagonism between the individual and the State.

For them, the distinction between the  state- as the apparatus of government and the individual was primordial or primitive (e.g. Carl  Schmitt ).

Today, the complex relationship between the state, the society and the individual is spoken or expressed in a more differentiated way.

Hence, constitutions are expressed rather as a tool to organize the  many-sided relationships between the state , the society as a whole and the individual: 

As citizens, individuals constitute the people of a state. Through the exercise of their civil and political rights they take part in the state apparatus. 

If they make use of their right to be elected  to  state  offices,  they  may  become  representatives  of  the  power  they  are  subject  to. 

Additionally, the same individuals form as parts of the civil society which represent social and economic institution that are distinguishable from the state structures. 

In contemporary legal thinking, constitutionalism can hardly be understood unless by taking into  account its close link to democracy and the sovereignty of the people. 

Democratic legality has become virtually the only form of legality that scholars accept as a justification for the  exercise of state power. 

Thus today, a constitution only get approval if it reflects the idea of  the sovereignty of the people. 

Art. 2 of the Interim National Constitution of Sudan and Art .1\ 2  of the Somalia Federal Constitution illustrates this point by stating that “sovereignty is vested in the people and shall be exercised the  State."

This provision clarifies that the legitimate state is (only) a tool that the people use in  order  to  exercise  their  original  power. 

It  is  surprising  that  even  the  Constitution  of  Afghanistan,  otherwise heavily  relying  on  religious  legitimization,  cannot  overcome  the  contemporary  requirement  of  democratic  legitimacy  and  thus  provides  that the national  way, 

sovereignty in Afghanistan belongs to all individuals who are citizens of Afghanistan (Art. 4 Afghan Constitution). 

The intellectual’s converse around the idea of democratic legitimacy has also long affected the procedural aspects of constitution building. 

The participation of the people in constitution building processes and the people's ownership of such processes are undisputed requirements for ensuring the legitimacy of any constitution resulting from such a process. 

However, the modern concept of constitutionalism, in which powers of the state are legally delimited and fundamental rights and freedoms guaranteed, did not evolve only in European countries.

Islamic states also developed constitutions, even if they did not necessarily use the  term  "constitution".  Among  scholars  who  study  the  history  of  Islamic  legal  thinking  it  is  controversial whether such fundamental principles as the separation of powers form part of  Islamic law. 

Historically, Islamic legal thinking was based on the Qur'an's interpretation of Islamic life as an integrated unity. 

It did not rely upon the assumption that religion and the state are separate spheres.  From a comparative perspective or point of view, it was also the case in Europe and the Americas, both ancient and modern until the beginning of secularization that no distinction was made between the religious and the political spheres. 

Both religious practice and political activity were considered part of the public sphere and as such subject to the control of the ruler or ruling bodies whose authority was seen as deriving from the divine order. 

The philosophical basis of Islam, which did not differentiate between the affairs of the state and  the  realm  of  the  religion,  was  important  for  the  formation  of  Islamic  constitutional  theory. 

Nevertheless, today most states with a Muslim majority have a constitution that integrates the  Sharia into the constitutional legal order to varying degrees. 

One  of  the  first  Muslim  states  to  promulgate  a  formal  constitutional  document  was  the  Ottoman Empire in 1876. 

During the reign of the Ottoman Sultan, constitutionalism in the modern  sense  developed  in  the  empire. In Iran  (then  Persia)  the  first  constitution  was  promulgated in 1906.

It was the outcome of a large coalition of intellectuals, religious scholars  and merchants in which scholars played a significant role.

In 1979 this constitution was replaced  by the constitution of the newly established Islamic Republic, which refers to the God given  order.

Afghanistan, a state with one of the youngest modern constitutions underwent a long  constitutional  history  beginning  in  1923  when it became  a  constitutional  monarchy  after  independence from British rule.

Likewise Nigeria, consisting of diverse regions was united  under British rule and is now based on a constitution that accounts for the Muslim North, as  well as the Christian South. 

Recent constitution building processes are often started in order to facilitate democratic transitions, and to serve peace and (post‐conflict) state building. 

The aim of a constitution can play an important role in political transitions. It can reconcile a people and/or stabilize a country. 

The constitutions of Afghanistan, South Africa, Cambodia and Bosnia and Herzegovina can be cited as examples where establishing a constitutional order played a role in overcoming  long lasting conflicts. 

It should be emphasized, however, that any constitution building process must and should be participatory in nature. 

In other words, it should make every effort to involve as many  citizens as possible. 

For ultimately, the legitimacy of a constitutional process rests on the extent  to  which  the  process  was  participatory,  open,  democratic,  inclusive,  transparent,  aaccommodating different interests and respecting the will of the majority as well as minorities. 

Regulations in a Constitution

As illustrated above, the term constitution refers to a set of rules and principles that define the  nature and extent of government.  Most constitutions seek not only  to regulate the relationship between the institutions of the State, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and  the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches.  Most constitutions  also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish or create the broad rights of individual citizens. 

A constitution is, thus, the most basic law of a country upon  which all of its other laws and rules are based. It creates the government and lays down the  main regulations for the operation of that government. In very simple terms, the constitution is  sometimes  referred  to  as  “the  instruction  book  for  how  things work”. 

In addition, the constitution contains guiding principles, i.e. it states the principles and objectives the legal order of the country shall be based upon, such as democracy, the rule of law or the commitment to human  rights. For example, Art 10 of the Somali F. Constitution and section 1 of the South African Constitution stipulate that these Republics are founded on the principles of “human dignity, the achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights and freedoms; supremacy of the  constitution ; universal  suffrage, a national elections  and  a  multi-party system of democratic government  to ensure accountability and openness.” 

Moreover, a constitution usually does not only contain rules which organize the exercise of political  power  but  also  restrains  this  exercise. 

Most constitutions thus grant for the protection of the individual rights of the citizens and for independent institutions planned to ensure that government is effective and does not act arbitrarily and not within the limits set out by  the constitution. 

In other words, a constitution’s main functions are: 

To provide(tell) for the structure, institutions and governmental processes of the country. 

To declare the standards and goals which are the basis of the country’s legal order. 

In addition, most constitutions also :

Provide  for  institutional  arrangements  or measures which limit the exercise  of  power  by  state institutions, in particular preventing their arbitrary exercise of power; 

Define and protect the rights of the individuals who either constitute the people of the country or are present in the country ; 

 Specify duty for individuals within the country; 

 Establish an economic order. 

In recent years, there has been a movement to acknowledge obligations of the state in the fields of social justice, basic needs and the environment. 

Difference between a Constitution & Other Laws:

The Hierarchy of laws 

A constitution is not like ordinary laws. The main difference is that the constitution generally is the highest or supreme law in the country and is therefore at the top of the hierarchy of norms. All other laws have to comply with it and all governmental institutions have to respect it because it is the  supreme law of the country. In our case after the Shari’ah, the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia is the supreme law of the country. It binds the government and guides policy initiatives and decisions in all sections of government. Art. 4 of the SFC.

To visualize or think about this special importance of constitution, one may compare it to a roof  under which all laws and public policies have  to fit. As far as they are not consistent with the constitution and regulate issues that contradict it, they are unconstitutional and cannot be enforced.  In  some  constitutions  such  laws,  that  are  inconsistent with the constitution, are even considered void, such as stated  in  Art.  1 of  the  Ghanaian constitution. 

This supremacy of the constitution as the  highest law of the land is usually implied, but in some countries it is stated explicitly. For example in Art. 9 of the Ethiopian Constitution, which also states that all laws and official acts, which contradict the constitution are to have no effect  see Art  4/2.

On the other hand, the constitution does not have to be the only basis for legislation, but may identify or recognize other sources of legislation on which the legislative body of the country shall base its work. Such sources could be the customs of the people or religious principles. 

Especially in Muslim countries the constitutions often contain provisions which define Sharia as one or even the main source of legislation

This has been done for example in the United Arab Emirates (Art. 7   of the constitution), in Sudan (Art. 5 of the constitution), in Somalia (Art. 2/3 of the F. constitution) or in Iraq (Art. 2 of the constitution). 

However, such sources of legislation cannot authorize the legislative body otherwise to violate the  supreme  law  in  the  country, namely  the  constitution. 

Accordin tothe respective constitutional provisions, legislative acts that violate the constitution either  cannot  be  enforced,  or  are automatically void or may be declared as such by a constitutional court.

Therefore the legislative body is compelled to draft only laws which  are  still  covered  by  the  “constitutional  roof”.  Should  a  law  run  contrary to certain constitutional provisions  it  would  graphically  fall  outside  of  the  “constitutional roof”. 

This can best be shown by an example: The following provisions are part of a constitution in  country X:y X: 

Sources of Legislation 

Nationally enacted legislation shall have as its sources of legislation the principles and the customs  of the people as well as the consensus of the people. 

Right to Live 

Every human being has the inherent right to life, dignity and the honesty of his/her person,  which shall be protected by law; no one shall arbitrarily be deprived of his/her life. 

The legislature of country X wants to enact the following law: 

In the case of the death of her husband, a widow is part of the cremation and shall be burned  together with his corpse.  

The mandatory burning of the widow together with her deceased husband violates the widow’s  right to life, which is protected by the constitution. Thus the law is – even if it reflects the  tradition of the country X – not in line with the constitution of the country X. It is therefore  either void or at least not enforceable. 

                                       Constitution‐Making Process

To enact a constitution is a special and rare political activity in the line of a state. Its success  or failure has profound and lasting consequences for the state and its people. 

Consequently, the  process  of  drafting  a  constitution  and  the manner  of  organizing  such  a  process  are  very  important and sensitive issues. 

Traditionally, the drafting‐process of a new constitution was  placed into the hands of national elite/influential , requiring the people’s consent only at the stage of final  ratification. 

But  over  the  past  twenty  years,  an  approach  of  new  constitutionalism  has  emerged,  which  is  focused  on  “participatory  constitution‐making”.  This  new  approach  is  characterized by more transparency and by broad‐based public participation

As a result, today, the legitimacy of a constitutional process and the constitution itself is measured by the degree  to which the process is participatory, open, democratic, socially inclusive, and transparent, and  where those drafting the constitution are democratically legitimized and accountable. 

This pproach makes the constitution the fundamental decision of the people to be ruled and  provides for the necessary democratic legitimacy.

Basic Elements of a Constitutional Process

There are many different ways of organizing a constitution‐making process. And each state or nation has applied its own special and unique way. But generally, a constitutional process may  be characterized by four phases: 

The preparatory phase; 

The constitutional drafting phase; 

The public consultation phase; and 

The final evaluation and adoption phase. 

In the ideal case these four phases may be analyzed as follows

First Phase: Preparatory Phase 

Initial negotiations concerning procedure, an outline of the process, and the establishment of realistic timetables. 

Agreement on a set of basic principles that will guide the constitutional process. 

Initial public education and consultation, national dialogue of the constitutional changes or potential revisions. 

The possible adoption of an interim or transitional constitutional document. 

The establishment of a constitutional commission.  

Second Phase: Constitutional Drafting Phase

The establishment of an elected constitutional commission or assembly that will oversee the drafting of the final document. 

Extensive consultation with legal experts and advisors, the international community, a broad group of stakeholder, all political parties concerned, and the public at large. 

The preparation of an initial draft of the constitution, via transparent drafting committees, and regular input from the public, and select international advisors, as well as domestic and  international legal advisors.  

Third Phase: Public Consultations Period

Nation‐wide public and civil education, media campaigning, reception of public comments and suggestions. The use of traditional and innovative modes of mediation and public dialogue, before or during the initial drafting of the new constitution. 

Structured  participation  by  all  groups,  especially  women,  minorities,  all  political  and opposition parties, and the civil society. 

Fourth Phase: Final Review and Adoption Phase

A review by the constitutional commission, parliament or the courts, as well as the public, for necessary revisions, amendments, or greater public input.  The broad approval and adoption of the final text via the constitutional commission, elected representatives, or a national referendum process. 

A  post‐adoption  process  of  public  education,  national  ratification,  and  conference  of  legitimacy on the final product. 

Interim Arrangements

The constitutional process is often facilitated by the establishment of interim arrangements. While this has taken a variety of forms, the essential features of such interim arrangements or preparations may  be distinguished as follows: 

the clarification of basic legal rules and governmental structures  during the interim period; 

a clear demarcation from the past and the removal of elements  that are clearly disgusting or malicious. 

In some cases, (Rwanda and Cambodia for example), basic stability was provided through a  peace agreement. 

South Africa enacted a formal interim constitution which served these purposes and set out a  series of constitutional principles to guide the process.

Public Participation and Ownership

There is a clearly emerging trend or movement today for          providing for more direct participation by the  population in the constitution‐making process, in the form of civic or community  education and popular consultation . Rather than being drafted behind closed doors by a small number of professionals,  this model enables the broader public to be engaged in the process. It can serve to include a  broader range of civil society groups by providing an opportunity for them to impact on the  constitutional process as well as on the political process. 

Thus, the constitutional process can provide a forum for national dialogue and education regarding issues and decisions that are vital  to the future direction of the country. 

South Africa, Eritrea, and Rwanda are successful examples to this extent. 

In these processes, a carefully planned program of civic education was conducted so as to educate the population on the role of a constitution and their role in the process of making a constitution. 

During this program of civic education it was established which issues were the most important for the  population at large.  

Uganda’s constitution‐making process was a very unique exercise to increase civic involvement during the early period of the democratic transition. 

The eight year long process was carried out by local leaders, funded and supported by external donors, and supplemented by local civil society organizations.

In 1988, the National Resistance Movement (NRM) government established a 21‐ member Ugandan Constitutional Commission (UCC) and instructed it to “seek the views of the  general public through the holding of public meetings and debates, seminars, workshops and  any other form of collecting views” and to “stimulate or encourage public discussion and awareness of  constitutional issues”.

From March 1989 until December 1992, members of the Constitutional Commission held 86 district and institutional seminars designed to sensitize the public to, and  exchange views on, the agenda and methodology of the process

Additionally, the UCC prepared educational materials teaching and encouraging citizens to get involved in future constitution‐building process.

The UCC broadcasted over 75 radio programs, participated in 20 television programs and held over 15 press conferences. The UCC attended seminars in all of the country’s sub-counties where they called upon citizens to organize  local  meetings  and  discuss  constitutional issues and later on returned to all 813 sub‐counties at least once to meet with  citizens  and  collect  views  in  oral  and  written  form. 

Furthermore,  the  UCC  analyzed  and  publicized 25,547 memorandum submitted by individuals and groups, as well as student essays and conducted a comparative study of selected foreign constitutions. Only thereaft did the UCC prepare the draft constitution. 

In addition to the meetings attended by commissioners, thousands of local government meetings took place to discuss constitutional issues and prepare submissions to the UCC. 

Local government leaders and traditional elders were called upon to organize activities in their area to include every citizen. Numerous public gatherings throughout the country were held working through local institutions so that poor, rural, and illiterate  citizens could participate along with the elites concentrated in the capital city. 

Constitutional Commissions

Many constitution‐making processes recently involved the establishment of a constitutional  commission,  as  in  Eritrea,  Ethiopia,  Uganda,  Somalia, Kenya  or  Rwanda.  In  most  of  these  cases,  commissions have been called upon to also conduct civic education in connection with the  constitution‐making  processes.  Moreover,  the  commissions  consulted  the  respective  populations as to which issues the citizens deemed to be crucial for the processes. 

Ultimately,  the  commissions  compiled  drafts  of  the  constitution  which took  into  account  these  consultations as well as other drafts and submissions from political parties, individuals and non‐governmental organizations.  These constitutional commissions were usually appointed   the  executive  or  elected  or  appointed by a Constituent Assembly. 

In the ideal case these commissions should be relatively  small in size, but still fairly representative in order to include the various political parties and  religious, racial, and ethnic groups within the society. Where the constitution‐making process has been sufficiently deliberative and has entailed or involved  broad public consultation , an interesting result has repeatedly been the transformation of the members of a constitutional commission   from  serving primarily as advocates for their respective interest group into a more cohesive group  with a greater focus on the needs of the whole society.

Adoption of the Constitution

In  addition  to  public  participation,  an  important  factor  for  the  ultimate  legitimacy  of  the constitution and the stability of the system it establishes is democratic representation in the body that receives the commission draft. This is often a constituent assembly that debates and  revises the commission draft and adopts the constitution.  

A broadly representative constituent assembly is more likely to adopt a constitution which is  perceived as legitimate, and to establish or create a political system which will prove to be stable. When  there is broad democratic representation, there is a greater likelihood that all stakeholder will have an opportunity to express their views on constitutional issues of importance to them. 

More importantly, there is a greater likelihood or chances that their views will be taken into consideration  in the drafting of the final document. Where this is the case, the constitution can serve to  resolve conflict and provide mechanisms and reliable institutions for peaceful resolution of  conflicts in the future. 

In many cases, the constitution was adopted by a constituent assembly elected for that purpose only, and in several cases the constitution had to be adopted by a two‐thirds vote of that body.  South Africa, Cambodia, and East Timor are examples.  

In other cases, the constitution was  adopted simply by the existing parliament (Fiji, for example). In Columbia, the constitution was  adopted  by  presidential  decree,  and  in  Rwanda,  the constitution  was  adopted  by  popular  referendum. In Somalia a constitution review committee is appointed by the president to review the constitution. So, the Somali Provisional Federal Constitution is currently under review waiting to be adopted soon by a popular referendum.

The adoption by a popular referendum suggests the highest form of democratic legitimacy. But  this only holds true if broad public participation also took place during the drafting period. 

Only if the people know what they are voting on and if they had previously had the opportunity to  influence  the  content  of  the  future  constitution,  would  the  objectives  of  a  participatory  constitutional process be achieved. In this case, the popular referendum would provide full  legitimacy. 

As the examples in South Africa and Uganda demonstrate, the adoption by a freely elected and  broadly representative convention  or meeting  provides  the necessary democratic legitimacy, because the people were directly involved in the constitution‐making process itself. 

The Constitution & International Law

Today  it  is  acknowledged or accepted  that several central elements  of  constitutions  are  influenced  by  international law. 

For example, international human rights standards are binding upon those states which have ratified the important international agreements. 

Principles which have to be taken into account in national constitutions are defined by reference to international norms  concerning  democracy,  human  rights,  social  justice,  and  gender  equality. 

Despite the international doctrine of state sovereignty ,it is well established that international law influences  national  constitutions. This  holds  also  true  for  constitutions  of  Muslim  states. 

Most constitutions contain provisions concerning international law. Most commonly, these provisions cover: the power to negotiate and conclude international treaties, the relationship between  international law and domestic law, and references to international human rights. 

International Treaties

Nearly all states have adhered to international treaties, governing a variety of areas such as Trade, see  e.g. the Agreement  Establishing  the  World  Trade  Organization  (WTO  Agreement) and its Annexes; 

Environment, see e.g. the Kyoto‐Protocol; Armed conflict, see e.g. the Hague Conventions of 1907 or the four Geneva Conventions 0f 1949 or ;  foreign relations , see e.g. the Vienna  Convention on Diplomatic Relations. 

Some treaties create international organizations, be they global such as the United Nations or the International Monetary Fund, or regional such as the African Union, the European Union or  the  Organization  of  American States. 

Some international treaties create specialized organizations such as the Organization of the Islamic Conference, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or the Organization of Petroleum‐Exporting Countries. In the area of human rights and the protection of minorities a series of international  treaties has been concluded such as  the International covenant or treaty on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural  Rights.

For  the  most  part,  the  international  legal  rules  with  respect  to  international  treaties  are  contained in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT). 

Part II of this Convention concerns the conclusion and entry into force of treaties. Art. 11 VCLT names ratification as a means of expressing the consent of a state to be bound by an international treaty. 

National  constitutions  usually  contain  provisions  regulating  the  procedure  for  the  ratification of international treaties and the relationship between national law and international treaties. 

The Power to Deliberate and to Ratify International Treaties

Most constitutions contain detailed provisions on the exercise of treaty‐making powers and their application.

The ratification of international treaties usually follows the same rules as the passing of laws in most constitutions. 

However, different bodies or branches of government can be vested with the power of treaty‐making.

The Executive

In most countries, the Head of State is authorized to ratify international treaties with the consequence that the state in question is bound by that treaty internationally. This is the case, for example, in Namibia where the President has the power to “negotiate and sign international agreements” (Art. 32 of the Namibian Constitution). 

In Turkey, the President is authorized “to ratify and promulgate international treaties” (Art. 104 of the Turkish Constitution). 

In Somalia, the President is authorized to ratify and promulgate international treaties (Art. 67 of the Somalil Constitution).

In some countries, however, the power to negotiate and ratify international treaties is vested in the government: for example, under the Ethiopian Constitution, the Federal Government has  the  power  to  “negotiate  and ratify  international  agreements”  (Art.  51  of  the  Ethiopian  Constitution). 

In the United Arab Emirates the Supreme Council of the Union has the power to  ratify international treaties and agreements by decree (Art. 47 of the Constitution of the United  Arab Emirates).  

Nonetheless, the Head of State quite often concludes only the most important international treaties whereas other treaties can be concluded by the government, usually by one of the  ministers acting on behalf of the state, most often the minister for foreign affairs. 

For example, the Constitution of Mozambique distinguishes between international treaties, which have to be concluded by the President (Art. 123 of the Constitution of Mozambique) and international agreements, which can be concluded by the Council of Ministers (Art. 153 of the Constitution of  Mozambique). 

Involvement of the Legislature

While it is usually the prerogative or the right of the executive to negotiate and ratify international treaties, many constitutions require the involvement of the legislature to give them legal force within the respective country. Roughly two types of such involvement can be distinguished: 

First, negotiation and conclusion of an international treaty may be reserved to the executive  and the legislature is responsible only for implementation. 

The international treaty is normally concluded without the participation of parliament. This conclusion makes the international treaty binding under international law but its provisions do not become part of domestic law  until they are incorporated by parliament through specific legislation. 

Parliament is free, at least according to constitutional law , to pass such legislation or to reject it. 

Consequently, it is this legislative  act  and  not the  international treaty itself that becomes part of the applicable  domestic law. Under these rules, parliament may also amend such legislation at any time. If it  rejects the international treaty from the outset or if it override or make it ineffective the international treaty at a  later time, a conflict arises between domestic and international law. 

It is a matter of the executive then to resolve this conflict in some way or other, e.g. by renewed negotiations with  the international treaty partner or reject definitely as the case of MOU between Somalia and Kenya about the Somali Sea .

According to a second type of constitutional provisions, previous approval by the legislature is  required  either  in  the  form  of  a  formal  law  or  in  some  other  way,  for  example,  by  a  parliamentary motion or proposal.

In these cases, the preceding consent or approval to the international treaty by the national legislature makes an additional legislative implementation  after  the  treaty’s  conclusion redundant or (unnecessary). Being approved by the legislature beforehand, the international treaty  becomes domestically applicable as soon as it becomes effective under international law. 

For  example,  in  Sudan  and Somalia the President has the power to  ratify  treaties and  international  agreements with the approval of the National Legislature (Art. 58 of the Sudanese Constitution  and Art 90/q of the Somali Federal Constitution ).

In countries with a bicameral legislature only one chamber may be required to approve the treaty. 

For example, in Namibia only the first chamber, the National Assembly, has “to agree to  the ratification of or accession to international agreements” signed by the President (Art. 63 of  the  Namibian  Constitution).

In  the  United  States  of  America  only  the  second  chamber  is  involved: International treaties concluded by the President require the approval of a two‐thirds majority in the Senate (Art. II Sect. 2 of the US American Constitution). In South Africa an exception is made in case of purely technical or executive agreements, which  do not require approval by Parliament but are binding upon the state directly. 

In Egypt the approval of the People’s Assembly is only required for “peace treaties, alliance pacts, commercial and maritime and all the treaties involving modifications in the national territory or affecting the rights of sovereignty, or imposing charges on the state treasury which  are not provided for in the budget” (Art. 151 of the Egyptian Constitution). 

It  should  be  emphasized  that  even  international  treaties  which  are  concluded  by  simple  signature,  and  do  not  therefore need legislative approval,  are  usually  approved  by the government by means of a decree or ministerial decision (administrative approval) and are then published in the Official Gazette for subsequent application within the country concerned.

 The Status of International Treaties in Domestic Law

Most  countries  follow  a  dualist  approach  as  regards  the  status  or position  of international norms in domestic law. This means that international and national laws are perceived or supposed to be two different sets of norms, and  international law may only be applied at the domestic level once it has been  incorporated  into  national  law. 

Other  countries  follow  a  so‐called  monistic  approach.  This  means that international treaties, once concluded, are directly applicable within the domestic legal systems.

Usually the monistic approach comes together with a constitutional provision that requires that the legislature has to approve the international treaty beforehand. 

No matter which of the two approaches a constitution follows, even if the applicability of international treaties is agreed upon, their status in the domestic legal system may still differ. 

To which extent international treaties are considered as being binding or compulsory largely depends on their status in the hierarchy of norms of the respective country. 

In most states, duly incorporated or previously approved (as the respective national legal order requires) international treaties, simply have the force of law. In these cases usually the principle lex posterior derogat legi priori (i.e. the       more recent law takes precedence over the earlier law) is applied, so that recent international treaties prevail   over earlier legislation.

On the other hand, it is possible that subsequent legislation may replace international treaties that have  been concluded earlier. 

However, countries where this approach is followed (e.g. the United  States, the United Kingdom, Turkey or Egypt) usually try to take steps to prevent any conflict  between domestic law and any international treaty they have concluded earlier.  

Some countries consider international treaties which have been duly ratified as superior to domestic law, some even including the respective national constitution. 

However, this is only the case in very few countries, for example in the Netherlands and in Belgium.

These countries give precedence to international treaties over both previous  and subsequent legislation, but usually only under certain conditions: the international treaty  has to be approved by the national legislature and it has to have entered into force. 

In addition, many countries require the condition of reciprocity, i.e. that the other party has to apply the treaty as well. This is the case, for example, in France, Senegal or Cameroon. 

In other states, international treaties generally do not take precedence over domestic law, but certain international treaties are regarded as superior to national legislation. For example, in Russia international treaties for the protection of human rights prevail over any contradicting statutory law. 

Lastly, in some countries international treaties are considered inferior to domestic statutory  law. 

However, this rather exceptional case usually concerns only international treaties of lesser importance. These are mostly international treaties which are concluded by the administration (alone or on the basis of authorization by parliament). 

In such cases, the international treaty has the force of the executive act (decree, ministerial decision, etc) through which it becomes  applicable within the domestic legal system.

Other states recognize the international treaty's status as superior or equal to the constitution  in the relatively exceptional cases where an international treaty has a direct impact on the  constitution (for example, if it amends the constitution or provides for derogations from it).

However, they only do so if the respective international treaty has been approved by parliament  by a qualified majority (e.g. Finland or Austria). 

Finally, in some countries the constitutions provide that particularly important international treaties occupy a position within the domestic legal order which is superior to that of certain provisions of the constitution. This is for instance the case in Italy with respect to the treaty  establishing the European Union. 

Other states consider international treaties only as superior to national legislation, but not to  their constitution. 

International Customary Law and General Principles of International Law

Regarding  international  customary  law  and  general  principles  of  international  law,  many  constitutions follow a monistic approach. 

This means that such customary law and general principles are seen to be part of the domestically directly applicable law without any further act  of incorporation  by  the  national  legislature.  In  most  cases,  national  courts  can  rely  on  international  customary  law  and  general  principles  of  international  law  and  apply  them  directly.

Some constitutions, however, contain explicit provisions concerning international customary  law  and  general  principles  of  international  law. 

For example, in South Africa customary international law is considered to be part of the national law unless it is inconsistent with the constitution or an act of Parliament (Section 232 of the South African Constitution). 

In Russia, Art. 15 of the Constitution states that “generally recognized principles and norms of international law […] shall be a constituent part of its legal system.” 

At the present time, the core principles of the most fundamental human rights, as laid down in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, are considered to be part of international customary law. 

Decisions of International Organizations

National constitutions usually do not contain any provisions regarding the legal significance of  decisions or any other secondary law issued by international organizations. 

An exception is the Portuguese constitution which states that rules issued by international organizations are directly  applicable  in  domestic  law  to  the  extent  that  the  international  treaties  setting  up  the  organization provide for this (Art. 8 of the Portuguese Constitution).

For most other countries  the  binding  effect  of  rules  and  decisions  issued  by  international  organizations  is  usually  decided solely by the international treaty which creates the organization. Art. 25 of the United Nations Charter, for instance, lays down the binding effect of decisions of the Security  Council.

However, even if an international treaty stipulates the binding effect of decisions taken by an  international  body  established  within  its  ambit,  it  usually  does  not  provide  for  immediate  enforceability  of  the  international  organization’s  secondary  law  within  the  national  legal  systems of its member states. 

Instead, the states adhering to the international treaty have to take action to enforce the decisions/secondary law on the domestic level by means of domestic legal instruments (legislative or administrative measures, see above).

Judgments of International Courts

Most constitutions also remain silent on the question of incorporation and enforcement of  judgments and rulings of international courts in domestic law. 

Generally the international treaty establishing the respective court or tribunal stipulates the binding effect of its decisions and  judgments. 

For example, Art. 94 of the United Nations Charter stipulates: Art. 94 of the United Nations Charter 

1)- each  member of  the United Nations undertakes to comply with the  decision of the International Court of  justice in any case to which is a party

2)-if any party to a case fails to perform the obligations incumbent upon it  under a judgment rendered by the Court, the other party have recourse to the Security Council , which may, if it deemed necessary , make recommendations or decide upon measures to be taken to give effect to the judgment. 

However, the decisions still have to be enforced in domestic law. While the procedure for the enforcement may vary, customarily the state adopts the necessary administrative or legislative  instruments of enforcement in order to comply with the judgment or ruling.

Prevention of Contradictions

Apart from incorporating the guidelines and rules set by international law into the national  constitutions,  states  may  take additional  measures  to  prevent  contradictions  between  international and domestic law: 

Before signing an international treaty, every state has to make sure that the international treaty is compatible with its domestic laws as well as its constitution.

If there are any contradictions but the state nonetheless intends to become a party to the treaty, the state  needs to amend its domestic laws or even its constitution before signing the treaty. 

Reservations:   states may also, instead of amending their  constitutional norms, limit the impact of an international treaty by entering a reservation to certain provisions of this  treaty:

. In the interest of allowing the largest number of states to join international treaties,  reservations are regarded as permissible in international law. According to Art. 2 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) a “reservation means a unilateral statement, however phrased or named, made by a State, when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to a treaty, whereby it purports/declares  to exclude or to modify the legal effect of certain provisions of the treaty in their application to that State”  

Art. 19 to 23 of the VCLT lay out the rules and procedures relating to reservations.

A reservation by one state changes the legal effect of the specific treaty provision it was entered upon only in relation to those other contracting states that accept the reservation.  If another contracting state objects to a reservation, the treaty remains in effect without the  reservation between the state with the reservation and the objecting state.

A reservation is only valid if it is not expressly prohibited by the specific international treaty and if it is  included at the time of signing or ratification.

Furthermore, reservations are impermissible if they run counter to the object and purpose of the agreement they were entered upon.  

The broad reservation Iran, for instance, asserted in its accession to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, that it “reserves theright not to comply with any provision or articles of the Convention that are incompatiblewith Islamic laws and the internal legislation in effect” is problematic under international  law. 

Several Muslim countries have made similarly broad reservations to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. 

Likewise, reservations entered by the United States concerning the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights are broad in scope and may run counter to the object and purpose of the treaty.

Reservations concerning specific articles, on the other hand are reasonable and helpful in preventing contradictions  between  domestic  and  international  law. 

For  example,  Egypt  and  Jordan  entered  reservations  on  Art.  20  of  the  Convention  on  the  Rights  of  the  Child.  These specific reservations of Egypt and Jordan only deal with the provisions concerning adoption. 

They do not question the application of the Convention or most of it but rather a particular and  perhaps not even central aspect.

Declarations: A state may also enter an interpretative declaration to a specific provision upon its accession to an international treaty.  Unlike a reservation, such a declaration does  not affect the legal obligations that the state has entered.  Rather, it is meant to explain how  that  state  interprets  a  certain  provision

These declarations are important for the interpretation of an international treaty, which is regulated in Art. 31 through 33 of the  VCLT.  Since  declarations  are  not  defined  under  the  VCLT,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish them from reservations. The general rule is that a statement entered by a state  to a treaty provision constitutes a mere interpretative declaration as long as it does not  contain a specific condition dependent on acceptance by other states.  

 Memoranda of Understanding (MOU)

: Concluding MOU gives states yet another means of 

modifying  existing  international  treaties.  MOU  express  a  convergence  of  will  between  parties and factually constitute an agreement between them, but do not necessarily imply a  legal commitment.

Because MOU avoid obligations under international law and can be put into effect without requiring parliamentary approval, states commonly prefer them to more formal instruments for adapting international treaties.         

Nonetheless, MOU may have legally binding effect. Examining the intent and position of the parties and carefully analyzing the wording of the document may determine this.

Interpretation

Another way to prevent contradictions is to require the courts to favour interpretations of domestic laws, which are consistent with international law. This has been  done, for example, in South Africa. 

Section 39 of the South African Constitution stipulates  that the courts “must consider international law and may consider foreign case law” when  interpreting the bill of rights. 

In addition, Section 233 of the South African Constitution  stipulates that every court must prefer any reasonable interpretation of domestic statutory  law that is consistent with international law over any alternative interpretation that is  inconsistent  with  international  law. 

In  practice  the  South  African  Constitutional  Court  extensively refers to international law. In the “Mohamed” case, for instance, the court made references to various international instruments as well as foreign case law when deciding about the constitutionality of extraditing an accused person to a country that imposes the death penalty.  

The Indian Supreme Court also refers to international law when interpreting the Indian Constitution. For example, the Indian Supreme Court referred to the Universal Declaration   of Human Rights and the International Convention of Human Rights and the International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in  several cases when interpreting the meaning of the right to life as laid down in Art. 21 of the Indian Constitution.

Membership  requirements  of  international  organizations:        :   

Many  international organizations  stipulate  requirements  for their members. The  organizations  stipulate  requirements  for  their  members. 

The existence of democratic structures within the member countries is one of the most common requirements (e.g. Art.  3 of the Charter of the Organization of American States). 

Depending on the international organizations a country intends to join, such requirements should also be kept in mind.

Further International Law Issues

In addition, national constitutions often contain provisions referring to international law, most notably with regard to the protection of human rights, but also insofar as they contain principles  for international relations such as the prohibition of the use of force: 

 Human Rights  

With respect to international human rights, some national constitutions nowadays acknowledge an increased influence of international law. For example, the Sudanese Constitution states that  “all  rights  and  freedoms  enshrined  in  international  human  rights  treaties,  covenants and instruments ratified by the Republic of the Sudan shall be an integral part of this Bill [of rights]”  (Art. 27 of the Sudanese Constitution). 

The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina stipulates  “the rights and freedoms set forth in the European Convention for the Protection of Human  Rights  and  Fundamental  Freedoms  and  its  Protocols  shall  apply  directly  in  Bosnia  and Herzegovina. These shall have priority over all other law” (Art. II 2 of the Bosnian Constitution).

The Constitution of the Republic of Senegal refers to international human rights in its Preamble, which  is  an  integral  part  of  the  constitution. 

It  reaffirms  the  commitment  to  the  French  Declaration of Human Rights of 1789 as well as “international instruments adopted by the  United Nations and the Organization of African Unity, in particular the Universal Declaration of  Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women,  the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’  Rights”. 

Title II of the Constitution contains a catalogue of human rights (“public liberties”)  containing the traditional civil and political rights as well as most of the economic, social and  cultural rights as enshrined in the two international human rights covenants. 

Prohibition of the Use of Force Cont

Art. 2 para. 4 of the United Nations Charter prohibits not only war but also the recourse to the threat or use of force in international relations. Many constitutions thus explicitly prohibit aggression or provide that the use of force is only allowed for defense (e.g. Art. 5 of the South  Korean  Constitution,  Art.  9  of  the  Japanese  Constitution,  Art.  147  of  the  Tanzanian  Constitution). 

In Germany, Art. 26 of the Basic Law prohibits any preparation for a war of  aggression. 

Other constitutions refer explicitly to international law. 

In Algeria, for example, the President “declares war in case of effective or imminent aggression in conformity with the pertinent  provisions of the Charter of the United Nations” (Art. 95 of the Algerian Constitution).

Similarly, the South African Constitution allows the defense of the country only “in accordance with the  Constitution and the principles of international law regulating the use of force” (Section 200 of  the South African Constitution). 

Other constitutions contain principles for external relations of the country, often including the obligation to resolve conflicts non‐violently and promoting friendly relations between states. For example, Art. 86 of the Ethiopian Constitution requires the state “to seek and support peaceful  solutions to international disputes”. 

Art. 8 of the Afghan Constitution states that “the State  regulates the foreign policy of the country on the basis of preserving independence, national  interest, territorial integrity, non‐aggression, good neighborliness, mutual respect, and equal  rights”.

Sharia and the Constitution

In secular states, religion and the state are separated. Thus religion does not play a role in the governance of these countries. In other states, where the separation of religion and state is less pronounced, religious law may exist concurrently, or the religious law may be integrated as part of the country’s legal system. 

Since the integration of Sharia in the future Somali constitution is most pertinent in the given context, the following section will analyze the references to the Sharia contained in constitutions of countries with a (mostly) Islamic population. Hence, the  section  scrutinizes  the  different  models  these  countries  have  opted  for  respectively  for  integrating Sharia in their systems of government. 

The relationship of Sharia law to constitutional law will be covered in greater detail in a separate manual. Therefore, the following section only provides an overview of the issue. At the same time, it is intended to raise awareness for certain legal conflicts that may arise from the  integration of these legal systems. 

There is a broad variety in the interpretation and implementation of Sharia law in Muslim societies, partly due to the fact that the concepts of Sharia differ substantially among the  various Islamic schools of law. 

Today, only a few constitutions are based solely (or almost exclusively) on religious law, such as in Iran and Saudi Arabia. In most other Islamic countries, Sharia law coexists with either common or civil law systems. In a number of Islamic countries the application of Sharia law tends to be limited to the personal status of Muslims

Several of the countries with the largest Muslim populations, including Indonesia, have largely secular  constitutions  and  laws,  with  only  a  few  Islamic  provisions  in  family  law.  Turkey has a constitution that is officially based on strong laicism although it has a predominantly Muslim population. India, although it only has a Muslim minority, has passed special legislation making Muslim personal law applicable to Muslims. 

Most countries of the Middle East and North Africa maintain a dual system of secular courts and  religious  courts,  in  which  the  religious  courts  mainly  adjudicate  marriage  and inheritance disputes. Saudi Arabia and Iran maintain religious courts for all legal issues, and religious police assert social compliance with Islamic values and principles. Laws derived from Sharia are also applied in Afghanistan, Libya and Sudan. Some states in northern Nigeria have (re)introduced Sharia courts as provided for in the constitution, which, however, remains secular in general.

Muslim law countries

Islam as the State Religion 

In constitutions of Muslim countries, many provisions may relate to Islam. 

Those constitutions that establish an Islamic state contain diverse references to the religion ranging from the establishment of a state religion to the foundation of Islam in education and the creation of  Sharia courts.

The Proclamation of a State Religion 

Most Muslim countries prominently establish Islam as the religion of state in their constitutions.

Art. 2 of the Somali Federal Constitution confirms that Islam shall be the State religion

Art. 12 of the Iranian Constitution confirms that Islam in the interpretation of the Shiite Jafari  School of law is the unchangeable state religion. 

Saudi Arabia, although it has no constitution in the formal sense, prescribes the Salafi or Wahhabi school of thought. 

In Pakistan, Art. 2 of the Constitution stipulates that Islam shall be the state religion.

In Mauritania, the same is provided  for by Art. 5 of the Constitution. 

In the Constitution of Afghanistan, the respective regulation establishing Islam as the religion of the state is Art. 2. 

Similar provisions can be found in the constitutions of Egypt, Morocco, Malaysia, Bangladesh and other countries. 

The Prohibition of Amendment 

Some countries which have declared Islam as the state religion have also included a provision barring  the  countries’  institutions  from  changing  this  provision. 

This  accords  a  special importance to the principle of an Islamic state, since this principle cannot be changed by constitutional  amendment.  This  is  for instance  corroborated  by  Art.  149  of  the  Afghan  Constitution and Art. 177 of the Iranian Constitution.

Integration of Sharia Law in the Constitution

II.      Integration of Sharia Law in the Constitution 

As mentioned above, there are different options for integrating Sharia law into the legal system  of a country.

Supremacy of Sharia Law 

The question may be raised whether the idea of a constitution enjoying superior normative force is compatible with the concept of an Islamic state at all. Some might think that an Islamic state cannot be ruled by man‐made law, which binds all organs of the state. Following this view one could argue that the Sharia remains the only normative force. The legal system of Saudi Arabia, for instance, is based on the perception that there can be no legal basis of the state apart from the Sharia. As a consequence of this perception in Saudi Arabian constitutional  doctrine, the country does not have a formal constitution. 

Priority of Sharia Law within the  Framework of the Constitution

Within the discussion of the supremacy of Sharia law, there are also Islamic scholars who  explicitly  embrace  the  idea  of  a constitution  based  on  the  Sharia  as  a  necessity  for  the  establishment of an Islamic state, since the Sharia stakes out or watches out the legal boundaries which the Muslim  community ought to develop but leaves a multitude of possible legal situations to be decided from case to case in accordance with the requirements of time and of changing social  circumstances. 

Therefore,  the  legal  systems  of  three  other  Islamic  Republics  such  as  Iran,  Mauritania and Pakistan are all based on constitutions. Art. 4 of the Iranian Constitution, for  instance, states that all laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria. 

Sharia as a Source for Legislation

Most countries that have introduced Sharia law in their constitutions did so by provisions that refer to the Sharia as the basic source of llegislation. This provides for a constitutional guarantee of the compatibility of all legislation with Islamic law. Examples of such provisions can be found in Art. 2 of the Constitution of Iraq which states that “Islam […] is a fundamental source of  legislation”. 

Art. 227 of the Pakistani Constitution reads: “All existing laws shall be brought in  conformity with the injunction of Islam as laid down in the Holy Quran and Sunnah, in this Part  referred to as the Injunctions of Islam, and no law shall be enacted which is repugnant to such  Injunctions.” 

Art. 8 of the Transitional Federal Charter of Somalia makes “the Islamic Sharia […]  the basic source for national legislation.” The same has been done in Art. 2 of the Egyptian Constitution which states that “Islamic law (Sharia) is the principal source of legislation

Compatibility of Legislature with Islam

Some corresponding provisions in other constitutions require only legislation to be compatible with the principles of Islam. 

Art. 3 of the Afghan Constitution promulgates that in Afghanistan, “no law may be contrary to the beliefs and provisions of the sacred religion of Islam”. 

The wording of Art. 3 of the Afghan Constitution is relatively vague and open to interpretation. 

Likewise, Art. 2 of the Constitution of Iraq, while establishing Islam as a fundamental source for  legislation, continues to provide: 

No law that contradicts the established provisions of Islam may be established.

No law that contradicts the principles of democracy may be established. 

No law that contradicts the rights and basic freedoms stipulated in this Constitution may be established. 

In  these  constitutional  formulations,  the  requirement  of  the  compatibility  with  Islamic requirements is not an absolute obligation, which would mean that regulations of the Sharia  have to be implemented at any rate. 

Rather the obligation to respect the Sharia in legislation is not the only obligation conferred upon the state by the constitution.

For instance the Afghan state is also obliged to respect its obligations concerning the protection of human rights as laid  down in Art. 6 and 7 of the Afghan Constitution.

In this respect the drafters of the Afghan Constitution have left a constructive ambiguity. 

Hence, in case of a conflict between these two obligations, a balance between these obligations has to be found by which the core of each of  the diverging interests is respected.

The idea of balancing obligations stemming from Sharia law with other obligations such as international human rights is a relatively new concept in the  Islamic world.

Secular System and Parallel Sharia Law  Applicable to Certain Fields

Some countries that have large or majority Muslim populations have committed to secular systems and have not instituted Sharia law in any of the models mentioned above. 

Nonetheless certain legal aspects of life might be regulated by Sharia law Muslims in the society. Ttthis is most pertinent to the areas of personal law such as marital law or law of succession. Art. 7 of the Gambia, for instance, states that the laws of the Gambia consist amongst others of the Sharia as regards matters of marriage, divorce and inheritance among members of the communities to which it applies.

The Indian Constitution makes no mention of Sharia law.  Nonetheless,  the  Muslim  Personal  Law (Sharia) Application Act, 1937, provides for the application of the Islamic Law Code of Sharia to Muslims in India. 

In Indonesia, a controversial debate was roused during the drafting of the constitution in 1945 on whether to establish an  Islamic state. 

Although finally no mention of Sharia was made in the constitution, Sharia is in practice applied in the fields of family law, marital law and law of succession. 

Currently the call for integrating Sharia into the constitution is louder again and the autonomous province of Aceh  has begun implementing the Sharia. 

Similarly, some Malaysian states have implemented the Sharia in certain cases, while the Malaysian Constitution contains no reference to Sharia.

Judicial Review of Adherence to Sharia Law

In order to render the constitutional guarantee of the compatibility of all legislation with Islamic values and principles effective and to guarantee the factual compatibility of legislation with  them,  most  Islamic countries  have  established  a  special  procedure. 

Such a review can be achieved either by a preventive and general review of every law prior to its coming into force, or  by an ex post facto review of questionable laws. 

The various Islamic constitutions have followed different approaches. In Iran, the Guardian Council, established by Art. 91 of the Constitution, examines the compatibility of legislation passed  by the Islamic Consultative Assembly with Islam prior to its coming into force according to Art. 94 of the Iranian Constitution. 

The Constitution requires the members of the Guardian Council to be Sharia experts. 

The Council is composed of six experts (religious scholars), to be selected by the Leader, and six jurists, specializing in different areas of law, to be elected by the Islamic Consultative Assembly from among the Muslim jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial Power according to Art. 91 of the Iranian  Constitution. 

Art. 203C and 203D of the Pakistani Constitution introduce a special Shariat Court to review the compatibility of questionable laws with the provisions of Islam on appeal of certain bodies of  the state or on the court’s own motion. 

In Afghanistan, both preventive review of legislation and review of its implementation are  possible. 

The President of the Republic has a veto right on legislation, which he may use if he  perceives  a  law  to  be  repugnant  to  Art.  3  of  the  Afghan  Constitution. 

The Independent Commission for the Supervision of the Implementation of the Constitution and the Supreme  Court may review the constitutionality of laws, and thereby also their adherence to Art. 3 of the  Constitution, after they have entered into force.

Structure of the Courts

Sharia Legal Systems 

Those Countries that have established an Islamic Republic usually confer the judicial powers to a judiciary based  completely on the Sharia . In this respect , the judiciary functions under one consistent system. 

  Iran 

The complete conferral of judicial powers to Sharia based courts is the case in Iran. The head of the judiciary according to Art. 157 of the Iranian Constitution as well as the chief of the Supreme Court and the Prosecutor‐General according to Art. 162 of the Iranian Constitution must be mujtahids. Art. 163 of the Iranian Constitution leaves the conditions and qualifications to be fulfilled by the other judges to be determined by law, but requires these to be in accordance with the criteria of fiqh.  Therefore only religious scholars trained in Islamic law may become judges

  Afghanistan 

Art. 116 of the Afghan Constitution proposes for the establishment of a Supreme Court, Courts  of Appeal as well as Primary Courts whose organization and authority shall be regulated by law. 

Other than listing these courts, the constitution does not contain xxany provisions concerning the structure of the courts. 

Only the requirements for judges of the Supreme Court are laid out in the Afghan Constitution. Art. 116 of the Afghan Constitution  establishes the Supreme Court as the highest court of Afghanistan

The Supreme Court is composed of nine judges as members of the court, one of whom is appointed Chief Justice.

Prerequisites for their appointment are stipulated by Art. 118 of the Constitution. 

Of special interest are the prerequisites concerning legal education.

Here the constitution specifies/stipulates` that candidates must have attained either higher education in law or in Islamic jurisprudence and  shall have sufficient expertise and experience in the judicial system of Afghanistan

Hence, the appointment of judges having either an education solely based on statutory law or solely on  religious law is explicitly allowed. 

However, the requirements of “expertise and experience in the Afghan legal system” in the present constitution suggests knowledge in both legal orders,  religious and statutory, since the Afghan system has roots both in Islamic law and constitutional  laws. 

Therefore, a candidate who is only experienced in one of these systems without sufficient knowledge of the other would not qualify as a Supreme Court judge. The court system under  the  Supreme  Court  applies  both  state  law  as  well  as  Islamic  jurisprudence.  There  are  no  separated Sharia courts. 

Mixed Legal Systems

In countries with a mixed legal system, for example where Sharia law and common or civil law coexist, it is also possible to establish a separate jurisdiction with its own courts for one of the  legal systems. Pakistan has established such a system. 

Since mixed legal systems are very common in the Islamic world, the court system in Pakistan is briefly presented: 

Example: Court System in Pakistan 

The judiciary in Pakistan is composed of three levels of federal courts, three divisions of lower  courts, and a Supreme Judicial Council. 

On the local level there are Subordinate or Village Courts dealing with civil matters and Magistrates dealing with criminal matters. 

There are District Courts in every district of each province, having both civil and criminal jurisdiction.

The High Court of each province has jurisdiction over civil and criminal appeals from lower courts within  the provinces. 

The Supreme Court has exclusive jurisdiction over disputes between or among  federal and provincial governments, and appellate jurisdiction. There  is also a Federal Sharia Court established by Art. 203C of the Pakistani Constitution. 

This Court has exclusive jurisdiction to determine upon petition by any citizen or the federal or provincial  governments, whether or not a law conforms to the injunctions of Islam.  An Islamic advisory council assists the Federal Sharia Court in this capacity. 

Formal Aspects of Structuring a Constitution

There is no uniform practice on how a constitution can be structured in detail. However, certain common parts of constitutions may be distinguished and thus a typical system of structuring a  constitution is presented here.  

The System of Structuring a Constitution  

Generally, the skeleton of a constitution remains to the following default system for structuring  lists that might be classified in: 

 preamble 

 preliminary provision 

 bill of rights 

 organization of the state 

 security 

 constitutional guarantees 

 final provisions  

annexes 

Part of the constitution                          General content 

Preamble 

Purpose of the constitution 

Underlying philosophy 

Historic developments leading to the constitution 

Preliminary provisions  

System of state 

General principles and values 

Bill of rights 

Civil, political, social rights 

Group and minority rights 

Solidarity rights 

Operational provisions  

Organization of the state 

The Executive 

The Legislature 

The Judiciary 

Sub‐units and local government 

Security 

•                     Military 

Police 

Intelligence Services 

Constitutional Guarantees 

Review of the Constitutionality of Laws 

Amendments to the Constitution

Final provisions 

Transitional provisions 

Coming into force 

Annexes 

Lists of competencies 

Country borders 

Location of courts 

However, this is only one example how to structure a constitution. The order of the different fundamental subjects regulated in a constitution and the placement of a particular subject  matter may vary.  For example, in the Kenyan Constitution the Protection of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms of the Individual is regulated in chapter V, after the operational provisions on the organization of the state (i.e. Chapter I on the Republic, Chapter II on the Executive, Chapter III  on  the  Parliament  and  Chapter  IV  on  the  Judiciary). 

In the case of the Somali Federal Constitution, the fundamental rights and freedoms of the Somalis is regulated in chapter II before the operational provisions on the organization of the State  (i.e. CHAPTER 6:  THE FEDERAL PARLIAMENT, CHAPTER 7: THE PRESIDENT OF THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC, CHAPTER 8: THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH, CHAPTER 9: THE JUDICIAL AUTHORITY

Also in Indonesia, the Human Rights catalogue is contained in Chapter X A, following the Chapters on the institutions of the state,  the state’s territory and citizenship.

The Division of a Constitution into Different Sections 

Usually the parts of a constitution are further subdivided into different units. The number of  levels and their respective names may vary, but as a general rule constitutions are  structured as follows:
Title  : National Executive ( generally , the parts or titles constitute  a constitution’s largest division (example from the Interim Constitution of Sudan, 2005)

The Chapter  : Chapter 1-The National Executive and its powers. chapters are introduced to designate the grouping of  articles within each  part (example from the Interim Constitution of Sudan)

Article / Section : articles /sections are the constitutions’ basic building blocks. Each article / section comprises a single legislative idea and generally has its own heading (example from the interim Constitution heading:

Article 58-functions of the President of the Republic (example from the interim constitutions of Sudan 2005 

Sub‐article/Sub‐section : subdivision of articles/sections (example from the interim Constitution of Sudan 2005 : 58 (1) – The President of the Republic […] shall perform the following functions).

Letter: Subdivision of a sub‐article (example from the Interim Constitution of Sudan, 2005: 

58 (1) –The President of the Republic  shall perform the  following functions: (a) preserve the security….

The Intensity of the Regulations elements in a Constitution

While the formal structure of a constitution may give the framework, it is the content of the constitution which shapes or forms the political structure of the country. 

This content may vary with  regard to the detailed regulation of any specific element.

In such areas where the constitution only sets an overall framework, it is usually left to the legislature to regulate the  subject in more detail by statutory law. 

The degree to which the detailed regulation of a specific topic can vary in different constitutions and can be seen by the example of the regulations about  citizenship in different constitutions: 

The constitution setting a framework 

As regards citizenship, the Ethiopian Constitution only provides for an overall framework. Art. 6 of the Ethiopian Constitution states the way that Ethiopian nationality may be acquired.

All further particulars relating to nationality are left to be determined by statutory  law. 

The constitution providing relevant parameters/limitations 

Art. 18 of the Iraqi Constitution provides for some relevant parameters  regarding citizenship,  but still leaves the details to be determined by the legislature. For example, it states that the  citizenship can be withdrawn from naturalized persons, but not from Iraqis by birth and that  multiple nationalities are possible with the exception of citizens in senior security positions, but  the details are explicitly left to be regulated by statutory law

The constitution establishing a detailed setting 

In Malaysia the constitution contains detailed provisions about citizenship. In Part III of the Malaysian Constitution the different modes of acquisition of citizenship are regulated (Art. 15‐ 22),  as  well  as  different  modes  of  termination  of  citizenship  (Art.  23‐28).  In addition the constitution contains detailed provisions about the procedures, the administration and the interpretation of the regulations regarding citizenship (in Art. 18, 27 and 31, as well as in the  Second Schedule of the Malaysian Constitution).

In Somalia the Federal constitution Art. 8 contains pro vision about citizenship. And Law number 28 of 22 December1962 regulates the different modes of acquisition and termination of citizenship.

The Enforceability of Provisions  in a Constitution

To ensure that provisions in the constitution are not disregarded, it is important to consider what effect the provisions contained in the constitution shall have and how and to what extent they can be enforced: 

 Directly enforceable 

The provisions that are directly binding have the force of law and can usually be enforced by the  courts of the country. 

Such provisions are usually worded rather precisely, to facilitate their understanding and interpretation, both by the citizens and the courts. 

For example, the bill of  rights  usually  grants  rights  which  are  legally  enforceable.  If  the  state  violates  these  constitutional  rights  individuals  can  address  the  courts  to  enforce  their  rights.

However,  provisions  regarding  the  organization  of the  state  are usually  also  directly  binding.  If,  for  example, Parliament passes a law (which is consistent with the constitution) and the respective  constitution contains a provision to that effect, the President must assent to the law and  promulgate it and the executive must implement and enforce that law. 

This can be seen in the example of South Africa: Section 79 of the South African Constitution requires the President to agree to laws passed by Parliament as long as they are constitutional; if he refuses, the Constitutional Court may decide that he has failed to fulfill a constitutional obligation and may  order  him  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  constitution  (Section  167  of  the  South  African  constitution).

Not directly enforceable 

Provisions  framed  as  principles,  directives  or  policies  impose  moral,  political  and  social  obligations on the state. 

However, such directive principles or state policies contained in a  constitution  are  usually  not  directly  enforceable.  For  example,  the  Constitution  of  Sudan  contains in Chapter II guiding principles and directives. 

Art. 12 of the Sudanese Constitution stipulates amongst others that the state shall develop policies and strategies to ensure social justice among all people of the Sudan through ensuring means of livelihood and opportunities  of employment. 

However, such directives do not establish any rights or duties which could be  claimed in a court of law, but state policy objectives (i.e. social justice), which the government  should try to achieve and which serve as guidelines for the state’s policies. 

But it is at the state’s discretion by what means and to what degree these principles and goals are to be put into  practice. 

If  the  state  simply  refuses  to  act  according  to  this  guiding  principle,  the  implementation of specific strategies to achieve these goals of social justice cannot be enforced.  In case the state does not comply with these principles the sanctions are usually political rather  than legal. 

Such provisions can thus serve as political guidelines which the government may  follow at its discretion. 

However, in a democracy there are usually political means to influence the state’s behavior, be it by pressure from the electorate or by the opposition. 

Binding, but dependant on further legislative action

Other provisions might be intended to be binding, but need further legislative or administrative action before they can be enforced. 

Such provisions are often phrased in terms like “in accordance with the law”, meaning that parliament has to enact a specific law regarding that  matter before binding and enforceable obligations can arise. 

For example, Art. 35 of the Iraqi Constitution protects the liberty and dignity of man.  

It also states that any victim of torture “shall have the right to compensation in accordance with the law for material and moral damages incurred”. Thus, the compensation has to be regulated in greater detail by statute before such a compensation can be enforced in a court of law

Limitations :

However, with regard to some obligations of the state in the field of human rights (especially social and economic rights) the binding character of a provision may be limited by the state’s  capacity to really fulfill the obligations imposed by the provisions. 

For instance, the social and economic rights (i.e. the right to housing, health care, food, water etc.) in the South African  Constitution  are  limited  insofar  as  “the  state  must take  reasonable  legislative and other measures, within its available resources, to achieve the progressive realization” of these rights  (i.e. Section 27 of the South African Constitution).

Fundamental Issues Regulated in a Constitution

Fundamental Values and Principles in a Constitution 

Since the constitution is the most important legal document of a country, one must draft it very carefully to reflect the values and policy objectives by which a country is to be governed. Often these basic values and principles, on which the society and the state are based, are incorporated into the constitution.  Most constitutions stipulate or specify at least the nature of the state (i.e. as democracy), others contain more detailed information. Most common are for example: 

 The nature of the state as democracy; 

 The nature of the state as republic or parliamentary monarchy;  

 The structure of the state as unitary, decentralized or federal;  Sovereignty and independence;

The rule of law;  The economic system of the country. 

Often material values and fundamental principles of the state are set out in some form in the constitution to guide the state, public institutions and citizens. For example, it may declare: 

 The respect of human rights; 

The commitment to a state religion or the secular or laical nature of the state; 

 Good governance  The commitment to social principles. 

These principles are generally intended to guide the state, public institutions and citizens but  usually cannot be used as the basis for legal claims. 

Nonetheless, they can be used as a means to help in the interpretation of the constitution (and other law). 

Some courts even use such directive principles to interpret constitutional rights in a way that obliges the state to take  action. For example, in India the right to life has been interpreted, with the help of directive  principles, to include the right to basic needs (i.e. food).   

Often such basic principles are only found in the preamble of the constitution, but sometimes  they are included explicitly in the operative part of the constitution. 

Especially the character of the state, i.e. as a republic, and the structure of the state as federal, unitary or decentralized is  often stated this way. For example, the Sudanese Constitution stipulates in Art. 1 the nature of the  Sudanese  state  as  an  “independent,  sovereign  republic,  which  is  a  democratic,  decentralized, multi‐cultural, multi‐racial, multi‐ethnic, multi‐religious, and multi‐lingual country  where such diversities co‐exist”. 

The Afghan Constitution stipulates in Art. 1 that Afghanistan is “an Islamic Republic and an independent, unitary and indivisible State”. In addition, Art. 2 defines the sacred religion of  Islam as the religion of the state. 

Another example is the Iraqi Constitution, where Art. 1 stipulates that the Republic of Iraq is a “single, independent federal State with full sovereignty” and that its system of government is “republican, representative (parliamentary) and democratic”. Art. 2 of the Iraqi Constitution  defines Islam as the official religion of the state. 

In addition, the fundamental principles and the objectives to be followed by the organs of the state may be regulated in more detail, particularly with regard to human rights, a healthy economy, social rights like the right to work, the right to good health care or the right to  education.

The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia stipulates in Art. 1 that:  

“Somalia is a federal, sovereign, and democratic republic founded on inclusive representation of the people, a multiparty system and social justice.

After Allah the Almighty, all power is vested in the people and can only be exercised in accordance with the Constitution and the law and through the relevant institutions.

It is prohibited for a person or a section of the public to claim the sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Somalia, or to use it for their personal interest.

The sovereignty and unity of the Federal Republic of Somalia is inviolable”.

In some constitutions therefore a whole chapter is dedicated to stating directives for  state policies (e.g. Part IV of the Indian Constitution, Chapter VI of the Ghanaian Constitution). 

Such directive principles in a constitution should be considered carefully, in particular since they  are  often  phrased  in  relatively  ambiguous  terms  and  whether  they  are  legally  binding  is  questionable. 

For example in Ghana, the implementation of the directive principles of state  policies is regulated explicitly in Art. 34 of the Constitution, which stipulates that the principles  shall guide all citizens and political institutions.

This article also contains the provision that the President has to report to Parliament at least once a year on all the steps taken to ensure the realization of the policy objectives contained in the constitution. 

                                            The Notion of State

The state is the modern form of organization of political society that has emerged over the past centuries world wide .

With the expression State consideration is given generally to a particular form of organization of political power arose in Europe in the fifteenth century , which is stated as holder of the monopoly of legitimate force of some people allocated in a given territory , exercised through a bureaucracy of professional .

The State It qualifies as " sovereign body " , that is not derived their power from other ( non superiorem ricognoscentes ) and forms the foundation legitimizing any other power on the operating its territory .

It is also commonly referred to as a legal basis for general purposes and territorial , not deriving their power from other ( external sovereignty ) and equipped with an apparatus authoritarian whose subordinates are so necessary subjects belonging to it ( sovereignty internal ) , particularly individuals residing on its territory ( the people) .

The peculiarity, for which the State does not stem from other systems exceeding their power, further expresses the character of its own, which in turn implies the ability to find itself the foundation of its validity and its legitimacy and therefore its position of independence and mutual equality with other states.

The State, in fact, is sovereign even as it holds the supreme public powers, which can impose itself on the whole territory and to all those who belong to it.

The external and internal sovereignty, on reflection, are two sides of the same coin, that is, two aspects of organizational capacity, that the modern state at some point in its evolution mature, to exercise the legitimate monopoly of force, through the preparation of administrations operating and outside of it (army) than inside (facilities for the maintenance of public order to ensure peaceful coexistence among citizens, the administration of justice, the gathering of financial resources necessary for its operation ).

The modern state was born as a result of events before economic and then political. In particular, there has been since the Middle Ages a reaction from the merchant class to the feudal , which had resulted in a plurality of spotty power centers (feuds, town, classes,  etc ...), which on one hand were incompatible with freedom of commercial traffic, on the other were unable to ensure social order and an effective protection of public security, a prerequisite to ensure the same trades.  That's why it has slowly favored a process of centripetal type, with the concentration of powers in relation to a single point of attraction (the Crown), capable of ensuring security and stability. 

The modern state affairs very different lives in different contexts where it produces and , over several centuries , states around the world , being still - even with the changes that have greatly affected - being used as a tool of modern organization political power , although because of the phenomenon of globalization of the economy is now increasingly talk of " crisis " of the state ( in this respect the significant increase in the number of States which occurred during the twentieth century : from about forty of 1890 to more than 180 today ) . Next it'll identify the constituent parts of the State, common to all the experiences developed state from its first manifestation. Then they will analyze the transformations of the State, as identified by the cd "Doctrine of the State"  which has developed a number of ideal types ( categories ) , which will take the name of " forms of state." 

  The building blocks of the State

From the foregoing it follows that the constituent elements of the state are three: the personal ( people) , the space ( territory ) and organizational - bureaucratic ( sovereignty ).The absence of one of these elements does not allow to speak in the proper sense of a state.  So , it is not state a people without land ( nomads ) , nor without its own bureaucratic organization is autonomous and independent from other , actually exercising the sovereign power ; as there is no state without its own territory on which to exercise sovereignty or without a people . 

2.1 The people :  For starters, you can define the people as that communi-ty of individuals allocated having established a territory , as the legal state grants the status of citizenship , that is, the set of legal situations assets and liability that arise from the relationship of the individual with their own state ( for example, the duty to pay taxes , to serve in the military ,  etc). The concept of citizenship is relatively recent it , in fact , is the landing point of a democratization process , completed especially after the Second World War , coinciding with the recognition in -the legal contemporary fundamental rights of individuals.

Citizenship, in fact, it describes a status subjections namely the passive subjection to the law of the State sovereignty ( Herrschaftsrecht ) , as previously happened with "subjects" before the state ; it describes liberty status , which requires the active participation in the political institutions , view itself as a " civic duty ". 

Distinct from the people , as a group of citizens , is the concept of population , designating all those individuals not linked by a bond of nationality but that at a certain moment historic stay in the State , whether they are foreigners ( citizens of other States ) or stateless ( those lacking any citizenship ) . So it is necessary to clarify the controversial relationship between people and nation .

Etymologically the word "Country " is derived from native , which in turn comes from nascor, indicating their common origin from same place . The legal literature now identifies two different ways of understanding the term, distinguishing between Country - ethnos ( nation of people ) , that is defined by membership of a number of individuals of a cultural , linguistic , historical , religious , etc . , and Country - demos( nation of citizens ) , that is identified by the sphere of citizenship and the consequent rights and obligations. 

It is evident that in its second meaning the relationship between people and nation is very tight ;

It is not so happens , however , when the term Nation identifies a community characterized by the commonality of language , race , traditions , customs, religion , etc.

Although there are constitutional documents that refer to this sense of the term ( eg . Art. 6 , 9 , 51 of the Constitution) . 

Problem related to the notion of the people is the manner provided for regulating the acquisition and loss of citizenship in our system. 

The matter is governed by the law 5 February 1992, n. 91, for which citizenship is acquired by birth (jus sanguinis: those born from Italian father or mother; ius soli: those born on Italian territory if both parents are unknown or stateless or the child does not follow the citizenship of their parents according to the law of the State where they belong);

for the benefit of the law (the foreigner or the stateless person at least one of whose parents or direct ancestors were citizens by birth, who has served in the military for the Italian State or takes public servant at State or, finally, that legally resident for two years in Italy and declares, within a year of age, he wants to acquire citizenship);

by naturalization (by decree of the President of the Republic, having heard the Council of State, on a proposal of the Minister of Interior, to foreigners, stateless persons and citizens of the European Community who are in a condition included in the standard or, more generally, all the times when the alien has rendered distinguished services to Italy or there an exceptional interest of the state). 

The same law also regulates cases of loss of Italian citizenship: -for taking public employment or public office in a foreign state or an international organization which does not participate in Italy or for the provision of military service for a foreign state, unless this is fulfilled to its notice that the Italian Government intended to abandon the use , charging, or military service;-

when you accept or do not leave a job or public office, lends military service without obligation or bought it voluntarily citizenship of a foreign state at war with Italy;- for renunciation , if Italian citizens residing or establish residence abroad or , being the son of the person who purchased or repurchased citizenship , it has come of age and is in possession of another citizenship.

Somali/Italian citizenship can be repurchased in any case:

-for the provision of military service or recruitment of subordinate employee of the Italian State;

declare he wants to recover; declaring he wants to recover within a year and establishing residency in Italy ; after one year from the date you establish residence in Italy;

-abandoning the employment, office or military service in the foreign state , provided it is established residence in Italy for two years and said it would buy back Italian citizenship. 

Finally it was expected that the right to Italian citizenship is also granted to individuals who have been Italian citizens (and their children and direct descendants of Italian language and culture), already resident in the territories ceded to the Italians after Yugoslav Republic (L . March 8, 2006, n. 124).

Function other than that provided by the state citizenship is attributed to European citizenship, that fact does not replace but is added to the national one.

It is now recognized not only by the Treaty establishing the European Community also from the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union in 2000 and the European Constitution adopted on 29 October 2004. 

In particular, Article 17 of the EC Treaty (the Treaty establishing the European Community) provides that 'the Union citizen is anyone who is a national of a Member State.  Citizenship of the Union shall complement and not replace national citizenship. " European citizens are also those who have dual citizenship, one of a Member State and the other to a third country. 

Citizens of the Union shall enjoy the rights and be subject to the duties provided by the following articles of the Treaty, namely:

the right to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States, with right to grant the same freedom to those who are legally resident in a Member State (Art. 18 TEC);

the right to vote and to be elected in the Member State of residence (other than of their national citizenship) in elections of the European Parliament and of the municipalities (Art. 19 TEC);

The right to diplomatic and consular protection in third countries by the competent a authorities of Member States other than their own (art. 20 TEC);4. the right of access to documents of the institutions and bodies, offices and agencies the right to complain to the European Ombudsman in cases of maladministration in the institutions and bodies, offices or agencies and to petition the European Parliament (Art. 20 TEC).

The Territory

2. The territory :

The territory is the geographic area within which the State exercises its sovereignty. Consequently , its precise definition is necessary to enable the State to exercise its sovereignty, in conditions of clear respect for the sovereignty of other states. 

The geographic area includes: 

the mainland, including the area bounded or bordered by natural boundaries (rivers, mountains) or artificial boundaries In both cases, the boundary is established by international treaties;

the territorial sea, including the stretch of sea coast within which the State exercises sovereignty. According to a tradition dating from the international group of coastal sea stretching up to 12 miles offshore. This, according to naval code, is the external limit also for our system;

The continental shelf, according to the Montego Bay Convention of 1982,It includes the seabed and subsoil thereof, beyond the territorial sea, before they sink into the depths;

it extends up to the outer edge of the margin continental or up to 200 nautical miles from the base-lines from which is measured the breadth (the distance from one side to another) of the territorial sea.

On this platform are recognized sovereign rights for the purpose of exploration and exploitation of natural resources alone, subject to the right of the other Member navigation, over flight and laying of cables or pipelines

the airspace over the mainland and territorial sea (with the exception of outer space) and the underground, within the limits of their actual usability;

floating territory, namely ships and aircraft cargo traveling on the high seas and the sky above and the ships and military aircraft wherever it is. In the latter case, also it is known as extra-territoriality.

It speaks of territorial immunity when a portion of the territory of the state is partially immune/free to its powers.

The most frequent cases are given by the offices of foreign diplomatic missions and from any place of residence of the diplomatic agent, places where the state can not exercise its authority without the consent of a diplomatic agent. 

3 Sovereignty

For sovereignty, finally, is the power supreme, exclusive and original that the State carryout in its territory.

It already mentioned the importance of the external and internal  sovereignty:

-the first, which operates in the relations of international law, refers to the relations with other States or international organizations, and is embodied in the effective and practical independence of every State in relation to other;

-the internal sovereignty, however, relates to the relationship between the state and the citizens, as well as with those who, while not bound by the bond of nationality, residing in its territory, and it manifests itself through the exercise of powers of empire typical of the state, put him in a position of superiority in relation to any other person, entity or organization present on its territory.

finally has raised the question who it was up sovereignty, if the state understood as State-person (as in German legal literature of the nineteenth century), the Nation, (that is, in the words of the Abbot Sieyes, one of the main theorists French Revolution, "a body of associates living under an ordinary law and is represented by the same law “ ) , or to the people .

On the one hand, the modern constitutions have hug or hold close the principle of representative, to which sovereignty is exercised by the people through its representatives of direct democracy

On the other , popular sovereignty meets the limits set in the Constitutions ; key documents that tend to take the idea of majorities (tende a sottrarre all’arbitrio della maggioranza) fundamental rights and the main institutional guarantees , all secured from the adoption of mechanisms of aggravation of the procedures for constitutional amendment ( cd rigid constitutions ) and the preparation of their " guardians " , the constitutional courts

Deserves to be called at the end of this brief expression on the state sovereignty, the current phenomenon of its crisis , usually attributed to :

increase the role of infra - state institutions , whose autonomy , understood a strength to give political direction independent of the state , is increasingly assured against the State itself (" Federalism " ) ;

the process of globalization , which is gradually fade/weaken state control in economy and finance, in favor of multinational companies ;

inclusion of states in a network of public authorities , be they are international type or supranational-involving more than one country- ( the emblematic or symbolic case of the EU ) , which gradually absorb large shares of competence

4 .Crisis , however , is transformation but not disappearance of state sovereignty , while evolving or growing it remains one of the founding pillars of human organization (organizzazione umana). 

The shapes of State

The expression "form of state" describes the way in which they pose mutually its constituents, particularly the relations between freedom and authority, rulers and ruled

.It is usual, by operating a simplification which is the natural product of each classification, distinguish the forms of state on the basis of a reconstructive approach of historical edge or frame.

It will follow this practice, although the doctrine more pressing reported her to the risk of generalization, highlighting the need to historicize and relativise the concepts.   

1 The Absolute State   The modern state was founded in the fifteenth century, historically, in the form of absolute state, intended as an organization of political power in which one sovereign is legibus solutus, loose laws as any limitations and restrictions external to his will.

In doctrine (Morta) was also set up (si e’ configurato ) a form of state front (forma di Stato anteriore): making reference to the feudal, in which power was exercised by the Lords essentially by virtue of the ownership of the land and those who lived in it, the so-called "Serfs" (authority of freehold). 

However , in this long historical period ( running from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD to the discovery of America ) , strictly speaking, it could not even speak of a form of " state " , as the phenomenon of the modern state is. It is commonly arise in Europe only at the turn of the fifteenth and seventeenth century , after a period of intense wars that promote the concentration of power in one sovereign , especially in France , England and Spain .

As for the reason of the rise of the absolute state , an analysis is widely shared so that the birth of the great modern States, responds to the need to expand the markets for commercial traffic :

Max Weber already recognized as always capitalist interests were intimately connected with the expansion of political communities :

on the one hand, the possibility of influence economic life through these communities is extraordinarily great,;

and on the other hand ,they can get huge revenue coercively, and arrange so that with them - directly or indirectly - are facing the highest profit potential: directly, through the hiring of paid performance, and indirectly, through the exploitation of property that they occupy politically ". 

Essential characteristics of the absolute state are:

the birth of a professional bureaucracy (burocrazia professionale) in the service of the King, mainly with tasks of external defense (army) and internal (public order), the administration of justice and collection of economic resources (treasury), which slowly erode the competence (skills) of feudal territory and centralizes the control of the sovereign. Thus was the main condition for the organization could establish itself as the "sovereignty" and therefore to be found that in the proper sense of State (Max Weber argued that the emergence of the professional bureaucracy is at the origin of the modern state).

the lack of separation of powers, all related to the sovereign without distinction; social mobility almost nonexistent, with a civil society still divided into classes and Corporations, on the medieval model, which belongs by right of birth, with a predominance of aristocracy aristocratic, landowning and warrior.

FORMS OF STATES

(1The Police State

The State Police   Evolution of the absolute state in the eighteenth and nineteenth century , thanks to enlightened or open-minded rulers ( especially in Austria and Prussia ) , the State Police , so called because it serves as a main purpose to achieve the welfare of its subjects , through a complete management and regulation of social activities .

Remain the characteristics of the absolute state , but it makes a further and greater professionalization of the bureaucracy , which deals with new tasks , consolidating as the backbone of the state.

Born in this period the SO-CALLED “ police science” , a sort of science of administration , which may arise at the origin of the modern administrative law . 

2 The Liberal State

During the eighteenth century, for a number of concomitant reasons (including the development of trade and the first signs of the so-called "industrial revolution"), it makes a substantial transformation of the economy leading to the affirmation or declaration of a new social class, the bourgeoisie.

This new social class decided, through a series of riots (the most notable of which was the French Revolution of 1789), a whole new conception of the State, the cd "Liberal state", which becomes the ruling class, to the point that in doctrine will define this state as "monoclass" (MS Giannini): the liberal state, which can be dated from the late eighteenth early twentieth century, the bourgeoisie It holds all the lever or force of power through the electoral systems of the type of property qualifications (vote those who contribute to public funds and, therefore, by reason of their wealth or wealth), which allow it to monopolize institutions, from the elective chamber of Parliament, which is responsible for the recognition of the "general will."

Watchwords or slogan of the bourgeois revolution are the new principles of freedom and equality, with the consequent reduction of all privileges/rights.

It is, however, of freedom and equality only formal, in the sense that behind the statements of principle, there is the will to achieve an effective equality of all, as to affirm the leading role of a single social class, the bourgeoisie. 

The essential characteristics of the liberal state are all linked to the emergence of the middle class: social mobility still low, where next to the class landowner and military, remnant of the noble class, which continues to be in the monarchy their main reference,

alongside the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, which in the light the affirmation of the principles of individual freedom (especially economic initiative and the property rights) and formal equality and holding the economic power, operates largely on the forces of political power (oligarchic State);

The representative character of the institutions, which connecting between rulers and ruled is given by the election of representative assemblies.

If you consider the character of electoral systems, it understands how the representativeness of institutions is put to the benefit of the bourgeoisie; 

-the introduction of the principle of separation of powers, for which the legislature puts general abstract rules, the executive gives their implementation and the judiciary to assess compliance to these behaviors of associates, put in place for the needs of the middle class, if one considers that the legislative power is at least shared by the bourgeoisie with the other classes (in the form of government of the constitutional monarchy, typical of this historic phase, the Executive power rests with the king, the legislature is from this shared with Parliament at least in part - the lower house - elective);

-the subjection of the public authorities to the rule of law, for which the public administration was to operate, not to violate the law and the limits of prior attribution of legislative power (principle of legality).

The government, thus, is not subject to the will of the sovereign (while remaining civil servants employees of the Crown) and made subject to legislative choices, which the bourgeoisie competes in Parliament. 

Some one adds between the characters of the liberal state also some resizing tasks of the state , which is responsible only to ensure order and security.

in order to allow market forces to operate freely , State was not supposed to intervene in the economy, thus creating the conditions for the achievement of the general interest .

However , even if the idea of ​​the minimal state belongs certainly liberal ideology , historians have found a significant reduction of state functions from the previous experience .

3 The welfare state (or welfare state)

The industrial revolution resulted in the eighteenth century, the growth of a large urban proletariat around factories that began with claims of a trade- established himself on the political scene before calling universal suffrage ( in Italy universal male suffrage in 1912 ) and consequently , under the c.d. " Mass parties " (primarily the Socialist Party , but also the parties of Christian inspiration , as in the Italian People's Party ) , the recognition of their rights , not just in formal perspective , but from the perspective of an active commitment ,State aims to remove obstacles to economic and social standing in the way to an effective form of substantive equality. 

Thus was born the "welfare state ," which , as is known , recognized , alongside the rights of the liberal tradition , a number of new rights to social benefits :

health, security , culture , consumer protection , sports , leisure ... have become worthy of consideration by the public authorities , so that the social level , the public interest has been increasingly associated with the idea of solidarity .

Prototype welfare state was the SO-CALLED " Weimar Republic " , was born in Germany after the First World War in 1919 and known as unstable that sort that allowed the rise of fascism .

But it was also the first laboratory of the welfare state , with a constitution that was cutting edge (avanguardia) and became a reference point for all subsequent constitutional experience post -war . 

The model of the welfare state has been so widespread in large parts of Western Europe, except in Eastern Europe who came back after the Treaty of Yalta in the Soviet sphere of influence, and it is still in place, although since the late 70s of the twentieth century there is talk of a financial crisis of the welfare state, which would no longer be able to sustain the significant debt accumulated to cope with the ever increasing costs of social demands.

It is characterized by the emergence, alongside the social rights, the principle of democracy, through which the masses participate in political life alongside the other social classes, to the point that it is customary to talk about as "state democratic and social. “

Next to the persistence and the substantial widening of a professional bureaucracy, the character tends to :

1)-representative institutions, 

2)-maintaining a trend of separation of powers,

3)-the recognition of the principle of legality and of the

4)-traditional individual freedoms,  all these elements borrowed from previous experience state.

The essential characteristics of the welfare state are due to nature "multi-class" of the new system, in which the middle class is accompanied by other social classes in a system that tries to reconcile the needs and ensure the rights:

-the principle of popular sovereignty, which ensures the democratic participation of all citizens in the country ( therefore not only the middle class ) , as well as through the institutions of representative democracy , as the liberal State , including forms of direct democracy , and especially through the mass political parties , which has the task to determine the " national policy " (art . 49 Const. ) ;

-the extension of the rule of law which now also involves the action of the constitutional organs, starting with Parliament (so-called constitutional legality ) . for this principle , the values ​​shared by society (multi-classes) are set out in rigid constitutions , modified only through a process aggravated , resulting barred or excluded from the sphere of availability of the majority of government and guaranteed by special organs of constitutional justice ( constitutional courts ) ;

-from an economic standpoint:

1)- there is a surge of the tasks of the state,

2)-intervenes directly in the economy (so-called " mixed economy " ) ,

3)- promotes redistribution of wealth ( substantive equality ) ,

4)-adopts a complex of legislation for the protection of labor and social security;

5)-ensure all new social rights , viewed as the right to claim the insured through the state , etc

A further feature of the welfare state , which does not seem to come down from the presence on the political scene of most social classes , but also can be read as a form of reaction to previous experiences , it is full recognition of pluralism , namely the recognition and promotion of social formations that put in an intermediate level between individuals and State ( associations , unions , political parties , religious groups , etc ... ) , that the foundation of the feudal system , had been discriminated against and fought by the bourgeois revolutions.

If today the welfare state is the one that best describes the typical form of other state in many Western democracies ( especially in Europe ) , the processes of globalization taking place and of supranational integration are affecting considerably on its main features .

Therefore, one can state that today the state has social aspects in the new than previous experience:

-changing modes of expression of popular sovereignty , with the transformation of mass parties , which - thanks to new means of communication - are becoming parties - person , that is linked to their leader the traditional principle of legality joins with that of efficiency , for which what is counted for in the action of public authorities is to achieve the objectives with the least possible expenditure of resources ( economy) ;

Therefore, one can state that today the state has social aspects in the new than previous experience:

-changing modes of expression of popular sovereignty , with the transformation of mass parties , which - thanks to new means of communication - are becoming parties - person , that is linked to their leader

- the traditional principle of legality joins with that of efficiency , for which what is counted for in the action of public authorities is to achieve the objectives with the least possible expenditure of resources ( economy) ;

(4) The authoritarian state

Not everywhere but 'claims arising from the appearance on the political scene of the urban proletariat, despite social tensions and also very hard labor struggles , have resulted in the democratic form of the state .

In many European countries , including Italy , Spain and the Germans , following the crisis of the liberal state and after the First World War , was realized on so called " Authoritarian state " inspired or encouraged by fascist ideology .

Common concerns were :

-the suppression or control of all forms of democracy and its guarantees still present in the liberal state ( free elections , rule of law, separation of powers trend ) ;

-the suppression or control of fundamental freedoms related to democracy , including freedom of expression of their thoughts ;

-the fundamental role of Chief charismatic performer of the real will of the nation;

-the crucial role of the single party, whose structures ended up overlapping with those of the state;

5 The socialist state

The growth of the industrial proletariat and the inhuman discrimination they were subjected sometimes, did develop in the eighteenth century modern of philosophical and political thoughts set out not only to achieve greater social equity (utopian socialism) but also revolutionary movements, whose aim was to bring down through the "class struggle" the bourgeois class and capitalism, because it realized or became conscious the dictatorship of the proletariat (Marxism).

Marxism’s first historical realization was in Russia, in 1917, where there was the victory of the Bolshevik movement led by Lenin, and from there it spreads, after the Second World War, Eastern Europe, Africa, Asia and Cuba.

In many of these countries, however, the model of socialism was already abandoned by the historical events which materialized after the collapse or fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) (countries of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe), or at least there are significant signs opening to forms of market economy (China). 

Essential characteristics of the socialist state are:

1)-the suppression of all forms of democracy and its guarantees (from periodic option to free elections)

2)-fundamental freedoms, especially those related to democracy (including freedom of expression of their thoughts, even if they are formally recognized) can be compressed if they pose a threat to communism.

3)-the crucial role of the single party (the Communist Party), whose structures ended up overlapping with those of the state;

4)-forced collectivization of the means of production, with limited survival of personal property and private initiative in secondary economic sectors;

5)-central economic planning by the State;

6)-denial of the rule of law in the name of the cd "Socialist legality" which could always be waived (derogata) in the supreme interest of the working class.

The Government: Definition and composition

Between important or relevant constitutions a prominent place takes on the government, complex organ, composed of the President of the Council and the ministers, who together form the Council of Ministers, which take part relevant constitutional functions of a political, legal (it takes measures with the force of law and regulations) and mainly administrative in a broad sense, as it is at the top of the executive power and individual ministries are part of all the administrative sectors of the State.

Art. 92.The Government of the Republic consists of the Prime Minister and the ministers who together form the Council of Ministers.  Art 97 -99 of the Federal Republic of Somali Constitution. The structure and activities of the government are planned and disciplined, by Articles. 92-96 of Italian Const. and Articles 97-99 of the F R of Somalia Constitution.

The few constitutional provisions need to be complemented with provisions specified in other laws on the organization of the Presidency of the Council, by Decree. July 30, 1999, n. 300, by which it was decided to reorganize the structure of central and local administration of the State, and Legislative Decree. July 30, 1999, n. 303, which revised the tasks and structure of the Presidency of the Council of Ministers. See also Law n. 14 of June 3, 1962).

Alongside the organs that make up the government in the strict sense (Prime Minister, Ministers and Council of Ministers), the Italian laws cited, predicted organs not necessary, such as vice-presidents of the Council, the c.d. Ministers without Portfolio (in charge of departments of the Presidency of the Council), the Secretaries of State, the Cabinet Council, the ministerial committees and the Special Commissioners of the Government.

The formation of the Government

Regarding the formation of the Government, the Constitution is simply limited to slim references, art. 92, paragraph 2: The President of the Republic appoints the President of the Council of Ministers and, on his proposal, the ministers.   

Says nothing, however, about the procedure to follow. As a result, the formation of the government is reached through a process governed primarily by customary rules and, above all, by constitutional conventions, that rules the result of agreements between the interested parties and therefore related to the particular conditions in which they are  produced.

It is not surprising, therefore, that the process of formation of the government has changed in recent years, in the wake of the more general change that has affected the Italian institutional system and the balance between the political forces.

Until 1993, in fact, the executives were the result of agreements between different parties (coalition governments) reached only after the elections, so that the process of formation of the government was more laborious, seeing stars, the President of the Republic through consultations with various institutional subjects , tried to investigate the orientation of the political forces and to identify well the personality to be commissioned or delegated.

This phase should customarily be heard the Presidents of the two Chambers, former Presidents of the Republic and head of the parliamentary groups.

It followed, therefore, the appointment of the person with a greater chance to form a government that would get the confidence of Parliament.

If, however, the political situation was very complex and, the first presidential consultations had not produced significant indications, the designation could be preceded by an exploratory mandate, which the Head of State delegate to a notable figure (usually the President of either House) to avoid being too long involved in the resolution of a crisis that, for its political nature, could tarnish the neutrality of his office.

Different from the exploratory mandate was entrusted to pre-delegated political personality who would presumably obtained the post permanently.

There are, in fact, only two coalitions. Each group presents its leader as a candidate for prime minister. In this way, there is no longer the need to proceed to grueling or tough rounds of consultations to identify the personality to be entrusted with the task of forming the government, since the task is automatically assigned to the leader of the coalition that won the elections.

The next steps of the procedure, however, are obligations dictated explicitly by the Constitution. in particular:

a)-once appointed , the prime minister continues to present the list of his ministers;

the President of the Republic appoints by decree countersigned by the new head of government and in the case of Somalia the President of Council of Ministers appoints by decree his ministers (art. 92 Const. and art 100  of  S. F. Const);

B). Before taking office, the Prime Minister and Ministers must pay sworn in by the Head of State  or by the President of Supreme Court in the case of Somalia (art. 93 Const. and 104 of S. F. Const).

With the swearing in the new government takes office, but can only perform the tasks of ordinary administration;

C). Before entering into the fullness of power the government has to earn the trust of the Parliament (art. 94 Const.).  (Art 100\c of  S.F.Const)

To this end, within ten days (ie by decree nomination), must appear before each of the two chambers, where the President of the Council shall explain the program he intends to (policy statements).

According to our Constitution, the government should earn the trust of the Parliament within 30 days

Based on the program, start a discussion culminating with the motion of confidence, that is, the vote by which parliamentarians are committed to support the Government's action.

The motion must be substantiated or validated and is voted on by roll call, in order to force parliamentarians to assume their responsibilities in the public eye.

Today, as the program of the Government is prepared even before the elections by all the forces of the coalition, the vote of confidence seems obvious or evident , unlike what happened in the past.

The vote of confidence can sometimes be done again at the initiative of the Government, proposing the so-called "Matter of Trust“.

The implementation of the political is assured, in fact, in our system, the collective responsibility of the government and the individual ministers for the individual acts of their own ministries (art. 95 Const.). 

But where there is liability or legal responsibility, the Court points out’.

Further in the life of the government is then the reshuffle.

Reshuffle is the replacement of one or more Ministers in the Executive, or because they no longer enjoy the confidence of the Prime Minister or of the majority forces, or for other reasons (illness, death, resignation etc.).

Generally the reshuffle does not cause a government crisis, or rather is a means to avoid it:

if the relationship of trust with one or more Ministers fails, change the personal element can be necessary and sufficient to keep up the government agreement and the relationship of trust between the Government and Parliament.

Finally, the resignation of the government can be:

-compulsory, as a result of distrust of the Chambers and of failure to grant the initial trust.

The Head of the State has an obligation to accept them.

As a result of changed relations with Parliament or with parties who support it, the Head of State may reject them, calling on the government to appear before the parliament and the President of the Council to seek a new agreement.

In any case of resignation, usually accepted only by the President of the Republic (but may also be rejected), the outgoing government remains in office, at the invitation of the Head of State, until the appointment of the new Government, to handle matters of routine (It has, thus, a prororogatio).

He will have to abstain on the contrary, by all those discretionary acts that can be sent to the management of the next government without appreciable damage.

The Council of Ministers

It is a collegial body, composed of all the ministers (even those without portfolio), by the Prime Minister (who chairs it) and the Secretary of the Presidency of the Council, which shall act as secretary without vote. When dealing with matters relating to the special statute regions, board meetings are also attended by the Presidents of the regions concerned. 

Italian system , the Presidents have different weights, for instance, the President  of the Sicily Region has a deliberative vote (art. 21 Stat. Reg. Sec.), While the other Presidents have only advisory vote).

The powers of the Council of Ministers have been specified by law 400/1988, with which the President of the Council of Ministers has acquired a greater degree of independence from the figures and the powers of individual Ministers.

The Board are primarily functions of political and administrative direction. The Council of Ministers, that is, determines the general policy of the Governments; implement the general direction of the administration; resolution, also, on any question relating to the policy (art. 2, Law 400/1988

It is, in particular, that the Council approve the statements that will be announced by the Prime Minister to the Chamber at the time of presentation of the Government before them; express consent to the initiative of the President of the Council to put the issue of confidence before the Chambers;

decide on matters of public policy and senior management (as the appointment of senior officials) as well as on international issues and community in general;

deliberate acts concerning relations between the State and the Catholic Church (art. 7 Const.) and between the State and the other religions (art. 8 Cst.).Another important function of the Cabinet is to legislation.

In particular, it is up to the Council of Ministers decide on the bills of government initiative to be presented to Parliament; communications that the Government intends to make to the Chambers, in order to draft laws

decrees having the force of law (decree-laws and legislative decrees) and regulations (ie government) to be issued by decree of the President of the Republic.

The Council also brings into being all decisions concerning relations with the regions. In particular: the detailed proposal to the President of the Republic to dissolve a regional council under art. 126 Const .; the promotion of the issue of legitimacy of a regional law before the Constitutional Court (art. 127 Const.).

In the Council, it also defines the resolution of the differences and conflicts of authority between the Ministers. Conflicts can arise as political differences or conflicts of jurisdiction. In both cases, the final decision would be for the Council of Ministers.

There will also be a resolution of the Council of Ministers for measures to be enacted in contrast to the opinion (required but not binding) of the State Council; requests the Court of Auditors for registration or endorsement of acts subject; extraordinary cancellation, the protection order, unlawful administrative acts (Art. 138 Legislative Decree no. 267/2000) and exercise of powers by art. 120 Const .; approval of the list of new ministers; Nominations for president of bodies, institutions or companies of national character, of State jurisdiction.

Any organ of the Council of Ministers is the Cabinet Council.

Set up on an experimental basis in 1983 as a collective body with the function of "assisting the President and Vice President in their political activities, without prejudice to the powers of the Council of Ministers", it is currently institutionalized with the art. 6 of Law 400/1988, which states that the President of the Council (in the performance of the functions of art. 95, paragraph 1 of the Constitution.) may be assisted by a "committee, named by the Council of the Cabinet" composed of ministers appointed by him, heard the Council of Ministers; the President may, however, invite individual sessions other ministers because of their competence.

This body, however, does not have deliberative functions, but only preliminary, as it shall examine in advance the most important aspects of government policy and prepares the ground for subsequent deliberations of the Council of Ministers.

Other government bodies

Committees of Ministers and ministerial Committees consisting of several ministers, not expressly provided for by the Constitution, can be divided into committees of Ministers, established by a decree by the Cabinet or by the Prime Minister, who are charged with the study and preparation for the deliberation of the Council of ministers, and inter-ministerial committees, established by law which has specific responsibilities for policy and administration.

The latest trend ordering sees a drastic reduction of inter-ministerial committees, in order to avoid the fragmentation of responsibilities of the Council of Ministers.

Continues to play, however, very important role, CIPE (Inter-ministerial Committee for Economic Planning).

Constituted by the Prime Minister, the Ministers of Economy and Finance, Foreign Affairs, of Industry, Labour and Social Policy, Infrastructure, of Agriculture and Forestry, the CIPE acts as identified in art. 1 of Legislative Decree no. 05.12.1997, # 430: 

-to define the economic policies to be pursued at national, European and international, identifying the priority objectives of economic and social development and outlining the actions needed to achieve them;

b)-define the general direction of economic policy for the development of different areas of the country, with particular attention to disadvantaged areas, and monitor their implementation through close cooperation with the regions, the autonomous provinces and local authorities concerned;

c)-perform functions of coordination and general approach in terms of institutional program agreements and other instruments negotiated planning, in order to achieve the overall objectives of development set by the Government and the full utilization of the resources devoted to regional development, territories and sectors;

determine or decide periodically targets and addresses on the basis of assessments of the effectiveness of interventions, by reallocating if necessary, the financial resources allocated and not used properly and looked forward as appropriate to the President of the Council of Ministers the appropriate steps, including legislation;

define the guidelines and principles for governments that carry out functions in the regulation of public utilities, subject to the powers of the authorities of the sector. After the establishment of the European Central Bank (ECB) and the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) has instead lost as the main engine of the Government of the coin the ICRC (the Inter-ministerial Committee for Credit and Savings).

In any case it continues to act as high supervision of credit and savings protection. II ICRC, established by the Decree. C.P.S. n. 691 of 07.17.1947 and subsequently reformed by Legislative Decree no. 385/93, is a collegial body composed of the Minister of Economy and Finance (who chairs it and has the power to call and proposed resolutions), the Infrastructure, of Industry, of Agriculture and Forestry, Community Policies and the Governor of the Bank of Italy (but does not have voting rights).

Among others, there are the Inter-ministerial Committees CIS (Inter-ministerial Committee for Information and Security), established at the Presidency of the Council, the inter-ministerial (Inter-ministerial Committee for European Community Affairs), established by law on Feb. 4, 2005, n. 11, with the task to agree on the policies of the Government.

The Committee shall be convened and chaired by the Prime Minister or by the Minister for European Affairs and attended by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Minister for Regional Affairs and other Ministers who have expertise in the subject matter of the action and themes included on the agenda.

The meetings may also participate representatives of the regions or autonomous provinces, when it comes to issues that affect these entities.

High Commissioners and special commissioners

The high commissioners and special commissioners are bodies established to deal with particular needs of a temporary nature.

Currently it operates the High Commissioner for preventing and combating corruption and other forms of wrongdoing in the public service, set up by D.PR. 258/2004.

They are set up in order to achieve specific goals or for special temporary needs of operational coordination between governments.

They are appointed by decree of the Head of the State in which it is indicated the duration of the assignment (art. 11 of Law 400/1988).

The acts with which is performed government functions and sectors of intervention

Government activity is achieved primarily through the issuance of "decrees", which are the typical acts of executive power

The decrees of the government may have regulatory or administrative content in the strict sense.

They have the form of presidential decrees, whether issued by the President of the Republic (DPR) and ministerial decrees, whether issued by individual ministers, without the participation of the Council of Ministers.

Such decrees may, in turn, stand out in the decrees of the President of the Council (DPCM), concerning subjects which enjoys administrative competence and ministerial decrees (DM) in the narrow sense, issued by individual ministers.

Finally, we have the ministerial decrees, if they are issued by most Ministers jointly for matters of public interest, or in implementation of the resolutions taken at the inter-ministerial committees

The acts by which the government acts as the political direction are the cd political acts.

Political acts are aimed at the formulation and implementation of decisions by which the government identifies the goals that the State, in keeping with the provisions of the Constitution, intends to pursue in a given historical moment.

For this reason it must be distinguished from administrative acts which, although expression of the discretion of the Public Administration, are bound to the pursuit of public purposes and can not be used for purposes other than those for which its power was conferred.

Political acts are characterized by their absolute immunity.

They, in fact, contain general provisions that do not show up immediately capable of affecting the legal position of the recipients.

In particular, there are remedies available against them, the remedies that can be used to protect individuals against administrative measures, eg the administrative appeals (opposition, hierarchical appeal and extraordinary appeal to the Head of State) and the courts (appeal before the administrative courts and before the ordinary courts).Other than political acts are the acts of executive administration.

Other than political acts are the acts of executive administration.

They constitute a special category of administrative acts, whose peculiarity is to make a connection between government function and the administrative function.

Such acts are between political acts, such as guidance documents aimed at the choice of ends to be pursued, and administrative measures, including implementation of direct options made at the governmental level.

Short or long. In the first case it contains only the rules on the organization State and some fundamental rights of freedom, while in the latter are recognized and protected, next to civil liberties, political rights and economic and sets out the values ​​and principles which should guide the actions of the public authorities.

Are usually short the Constitutions approved in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, while those approved after the Second World War are particularly detailed.

The Italian Constitution is written, devoted, hard and long.

The constitutional bodies:  especially the electoral body

Definition of constitutional bodies

It is first necessary to clarify the concept of organs and what more significant of constitutional bodies.

Organ, in organization theory, means all those complex managers or place of work who manifest outside the will of a legal person.

Considering that the current form of government , a differentiated way to the principle of separation of powers, the functions of the state are attributed to a variety of organs.

Are "constitutional" those organs that plan a political system,

By contrast, they are defined organs to “ constitutional significance", those who, finding place in the Constitution, are not described in the system to determine the essential characteristics.

Are constitutional bodies the electoral body, the Parliament, the Government, the President of the Republic and the Constitutional Court.

The bodies of constitutional importance are also the Supreme Judicial Council, the State Council, the Court of Auditors, the National Council for Economy and Labour and the Supreme Defence Council.

The electoral body

 The people is the personal element constituting State which is attributed, in our system, sovereignty (Art. 1 of the Constitution.).

The electoral body is the active part of the people, all citizens who enjoy the active electorate, namely the ability to elect the political organs of the State (not only, therefore, the Parliament but also the Regional Councils; provincial and municipal) and to contribute to the choices of direct democracy through institutions specially crafted/skilled (referendum, popular legislative initiative, petition).

The Constitution regulates the rights and the operating mode of the active electorate art. 48.

And assumes two requirements: Italian citizenship and the age of majority (eighteen years, except for the Senate, for the election of the Senate of the Republic, for which it is necessary to achieve the twenty-five years).

There is an absolute reservation (riserva assoluta) as to cases where the right to vote may be limited to civil incapacity, for existence of grounds for moral dishonor and irrevocable penal sentence. According to art. 2 of D.P R. March 20, 1967, n. 223, voters are not those who are declared bankrupt as long as the state of bankruptcy , but not later than five years from the date of the judgment declaring the bankruptcy; those who are subjected, by virtue of final measures, prevention measures referred to in Article 3 of Law 27 to 121,956, n. 1423 as amended by Article

L. 327/1988 or security measures sentences or probation or prohibition of stay, in one or more municipalities or in one or more provinces, in accordance with art. 215 C.P.

The special rule prohibiting members and descendants of the House of Savoy to be voters and to hold public office or elected offices (the first paragraph of the thirteenth transitory provision) was repealed by the Constitutional Law. 1/2002.

According to art. 2 of Presidential Decree 223/1967, ultimately, the voters are not sentenced to punishment that matter permanent exclusion from public office and those under temporary interdiction from public office, all the time of his life.

Article. 48 defines the character of the vote:

”Voters are all citizens, men and women, who have come of age. The vote is personal and equal, free and secret. Its exercise is a civic duty

The law establishes requirements and procedures for the exercise of the voting rights of citizens living abroad and shall guarantee its effectiveness.

For this purpose a 'Foreign Constituency for the election of the Chambers, which are awarded seats in the number established by the constitutional provision according to criteria established by law.

From these norms normally  descend the following principles:

universal suffrage: for which admission to vote can not be made subject to any economic or cultural, or sexual. In Italy women's suffrage was granted only from the first elections after the fall of the fascist regime in 1946;

personal vote: this principle means that the vote must clearly attributable to the will of each voter, so the nominal mode to vote in our system is to personally go to the polling station and to score in his own hand and secretly.

The electoral law, however, allows voters physically prevented to be assisted in the voting booth by another voter, deliberately chosen as an accompanist.

Facilities are also provided to the patients in a health resort, and for the seafarers or navigation. In addition, the decree-law on Jan. 3, 2006, n. 1 converted with modifications into Law 27 January 2006, 22, predicted that voters with serious illnesses, such as to prevent their removal from the building in which they live, are entitled to vote in the said house.

The L.459 / 2001 has finally introduced the right to vote for Italians living abroad, allowing them to exercise voting rights by correspondence. However, this does not constitute an exception to the principle that the vote, but only a new mode of expression;

equal vote: It is not include multiple votes reserved to certain categories of persons or multiple votes (in most sections or constituencies);

secret vote: secrecy is established to protect the freedom of the vote, to avoid possible external pressures;

free vote: for this principle, every voter should be able to assign or give their vote to whoever's choice, without coercion of any kind;

voting as a civic duty: Article. 48 Cost. Establishes that the exercise of voting rights is a civic duty, with the consequence that his failure to exercise is not sanctionable. The original penalty, however, imposed on those who had not exercised their right to vote and did not provide plausible explanations to the Mayor (Art. 115 of the TU  1957 was repealed only with the Legislative Decree no. 534/1993.

The  passive electorate, however, is the ability of citizens to hold elective

For the principle of coincidence between electors and elected, as a rule any voter turns out to be, in turn eligible. And 'it required but a minimum requirement of age for election to the Chamber of Deputies, 25, and 40 for the Senate.

According to art. 51 Cost .: "All citizens of either sex are eligible for public office and for elected positions on equal terms, according to the requirements established by law “

Despite the principle solemnly affirmed in Article 51 of the Constitution on gender equality in access to elected positions, the reality shows that this equality is far from being realized, as female representation much lower than for men.

The need to give practical effect to the constitutional provisions has led the legislature to approve some laws in the past which required a certain quorum of representation of women in elected assemblies. In particular, it refers to two electoral laws of 1993 (March 25, 1993, n. 81 and 15 October 1993, n. 415), which provided for municipal councils and provincial representation of no more than two-thirds of each sex and for elections to the Chamber of Deputies alternating men and women in equal proportional share.

Such measures were, however, declared constitutionally illegitimate by the Constitutional Court (judgment on September 12 1995. n. 422), for violation of the principle of formal equality.

Reversal on this issue there was, first, with Article 117, paragraph 7 of the Constitution., as amended by the Constitutional Law. 3/2001, that "Regional laws shall remove any hindrances to the full equality of men and women in social, cultural and economic life and promote equal access for women and men elective positions "; then, with the Constitutional Law. May 30, 2003, n. 1, introducing a new period in the first paragraph Article 51 Cost

"To this end, the Republic shall adopt specific measures promoting equal opportunities between women and men.

" With this change has provided the constitutional cover for the adoption of legislation that can encourage women's participation in public life, in terms of equality is not only formal but also substantive equality (so-called "equal opportunity").

The right to adopt laws that promote the presence of women in elected bodies has already been used for the European elections of 2004.

Article. Law No. 3 of 8 April 2004, n. 90 (laying down rules for the election of members of the European Parliament) in fact it provides that the lists neither sex can be represented by more than two-thirds of the candidates.

For the political forces that do not meet this criterion is a reduction of reimbursement for election expenses.

The ability to be elected may be restricted for the occurrence of certain cases, not related to personal requirements of the subject, which actually prevent a possible election. Typically the ineligibility is due to the particular position held by the person, who might place him in a position of advantage over other candidates or could lead to pressure on the choices of voters.

In the event that, despite the presence of a cause of ineligibility, a subject is still elected, his election is declared void by the competent body.

Under T.U. laws for the election of the House 361/1957, to which Article. 5 of the Decree.

533/1993 refers to the election of the Senate, they are ineligible:

the Presidents of the Provincial Councils, the mayors of the municipalities with populations over 20,000 inhabitants, the chief and deputy chief of police, inspectors general PS., the chief of the Cabinet of Ministers, the prefects and vice-prefects, senior officers of the armed forces within the area of ​​their territorial command (art. 7);

B. magistrates in the constituencies in which they exercise jurisdiction (art. 8);

diplomats, consuls, vice consoli, the officers involved to embassies, legations and consulates abroad and all those who have used by foreign governments (art. 9);

Does that have certain economic relations with the State (art. 10). Under Law 87/1953, they are ineligible even the judges of the Constitutional Court. According to the amendment introduced by art. 9 of Law 459/2001 such causes of ineligibility are referred to the "Italians abroad" also the title of similar charges, if any, covered by corresponding bodies in foreign countries.

Institute of ineligibility different from the incompatibility.

Incompatibility designates the situation in which the same person can not hold two offices.

Who is in this condition must opt ​​for one or the other, otherwise it's the same sort that does it automatically lapse by one of the two charges.

Thus the incompatibility, unlike ineligibility, does not prevent the regular election for an office: imposes only a choice between the new and the previous charge already covered.

So, for example, the Constitution states that are incompatible the office of deputy and that of Senator (Art. 65).

It is also incompatible with the status of parliamentary intake of the following offices: President of the Republic (art. 84 Const.), A member of the Council of the Judiciary (art. 104 Const.), A member of the Council or the Regional Council ( art. 122 Const.), member of the Constitutional Court (art. 135 Const.), member of the European Parliament (Art. 5a, L. 18/79 added by

L. 78/2004), member of CNEL (art. 8, L. 936/86), a member of legislature or executive body, national or regional, in foreign states (Art. 1a, L. 60/53 added by Law 459/2001 on the vote of Italians abroad).

Institute still different is the 'ineligibility. It consists of the prohibition against

The Parliament

Among the constitutional bodies is deputy institutionally exercise of the legislative function of Parliament. I

t is a complex organ, because it consists of two chambers (bicameral), collegial, consisting of a number of colleges and representatives, because it is overwhelmingly elected by the electoral body (not just the so-called elected senators by right and for life ).
Alongside the legislative functions (Art. 70 ff. Const. and 69 of the F. Const of Somalia), It also performs functions of political control, in particular towards the government which is bound by a fiduciary relationship (art. 94 Const.), And judicial (similar to those of prosecutor), in cases of formal impeachment of the President of the Republic, for the offenses of high treason and against the Constitution (art. 90 Const.).

The establishment of a bicameral parliamentary system is justified historically by the need to provide representative bodies of heterogeneous classes: the dawn of the parliamentary system, for example, to a House hereditary expression of traditional classes (military aristocracy and land), it contrasted an elective chamber, interpreter of the interests of the bourgeoisie. 

Usually, the different composition of the chambers corresponds also a diversity of functions: the function of political direction is exercised mostly by the Chamber elected by the people, leaving the other alone has control and veto.

The Italian Constitution provides a perfect bicameralism or full. Article. 55 Const., Paragraph 1, and art 55\1 of the S. F. Const. states:
"The Parliament consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate."
Both the Senate and the House of Representatives are elected directly by the electorate, perform identical functions and have the same duration of 5 years

The prerogatives of the Chambers

Chambers, to fully perform their functions, enjoy special privileges/rights.

Alongside regulatory autonomy, which has been mentioned, each room has:
1. financial autonomy, acting in its own budget and its balance sheet;
2. administrative autonomy, which consists not only in the organization of its offices but also the exclusion of the right of appeal to the Administrative tribunals (TA.R. and State Council);

as well as the inviolability of the buildings, being an ancient custom, forbidden to officers and agents of the police access in the buildings of the chambers, to perform official acts (so-called immunity of the office) and police functions is being carried out by Internal staff: service guards under the orders of the President of each House.

Finally, each House under Article. 66 Const., has the power to verify the qualifications for admissions of its members, the (possible) causes of ineligibility and incompatibility, and the regularity of elections

The organization of the Chambers

The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate are made up of various internal organs that can be classified into instrumental, operational and representative.
Instrumental organs are offices set up to ensure the organization and internal functioning of the Chambers.
They are:

a)-the Office of provisional presidency: is established at the first meeting of the Assembly and remains in office until the final of the Office (fino all’insediamento dell’ufficio definitivo);
b)-The Office of the president (final), and consists of. -president; Secretaries (11 in the House and 14 in the Senate) and 3 head of police administration-questori-

c)-Permanent Committee for Regulation: are collective bodies involved in promoting and process upgrades and modifications of parliamentary rules and to provide advice on procedures and the interpretation thereof;

d)-Committee on Elections (Senate: Committee on Elections and immunities): examine at first instance disputes relating to elections, possibly to submit to the attention of the plenum (pieno) of the Chamber to which they belong; 

e)-Conference of group leaders: are collective bodies (one for each House) chaired by the President of the Assembly, consisting of all the presidents of the parliamentary groups. At these meetings the parliamentary rules give three powers: the resolution of the program of activities (usually for no more than two months)

The operation of the Chambers

The time frame in which the Chambers perform their activity is divided into:
Legislature: the period of the actual duration of the parliamentary term (5 years) for each House, unless early dissolution (Art. 88 Const.) or extension in case of war (60 Const.). It is divided into several sessions;
- Sessions: are the individual meetings of the Chambers.
The decision to convene a Chamber remains with its President, in the cases provided in the Constitution.
The sessions of the Chambers are public, although each House and Parliament in joint session may decide to meet in closed session (art. 64 Const.). publicity is sanctioned to allow control of parliamentary work by the electorate

To avoid surprise decisions, it is established, both in the Senate's rules (Art. 56) and in that of the House (Art. 27), that it cannot  be discussed or decided on matters which have not previously been placed on the agenda, unless this is decided by the House itself by qualified majority.
The agenda is agreed, for a number of sessions (for up to two months), the Presidents of the various parliamentary groups (of Heads-group), under the direction of the President of each House.
The decisions of each House are not valid unless there is a majority of the members and if the resolutions are not passed by a majority of those present, unless the Constitution prescribes a special majority (art. 64 Const.).

Members of the Government, although do not hold the status of parliamentarians, have the right, and when requested the obligation, to attend sittings of the Chambers (Art. 64, since last. Cost paragraph.). They can still be represented by secretaries, senior officials of the Ministry or by their ministers without portfolio.
Voting in the two assemblies are generally carried out by open ballot, except for cases where it is expressly provided for the secret ballot.

In proceedings in the appeal to the Commission by secret ballot is allowed in only votes regarding persons. 

It is, however, expressly excluded by the votes on the budget law, the budget laws and resolutions that have financial implications.

The task of maintaining order during the course of the meetings  is for the Chairman of the Assembly, assisted by head of police administration (questors). He has disciplinary powers and may impose the following sanctions: recall the order of the parliamentary ruling, inappropriate words or disturb the freedom of the session; exclusion from the room, to the rest of the session; limit, with disqualification to participate in the work from 2 to 15 days, to MPs who do resort to violence, creating disorder in the room etc.

The status of parliamentarians

For the art. 67 Cost. "Each member of Parliament represents the Nation and carries out his duties without a binding mandate. "

This norm (standard) is intended to affirm the principle of national representation, in order to free/release the individual senators and representatives from local constituencies that elected them, and the so called  "Non-mandatory“ (divieto di mandato imperativo), for which a member must be independent of any political group, economic and social.

The prohibition on a binding mandate today is then read as the preventative/defensive clause of a close bond party.

Make the status of parliamentary prerogatives that the Constitution also gives him.

Alongside prerogative of the Chambers, mostly established in customary way, the Constitution recognizes the prerogatives of individual MPs,  which also are essential, since they are not personal privileges, pursuing the goal of protecting the fairness and independence of the parliamentary mandate , in accordance with the principle of respect for the full representation of the elected bodies

These prerogatives are:

a)-the absolute immunity for opinions expressed and votes casted by MPs art. 68. paragraph 1 of the Constitution :    "They cannot be prosecuted for opinions expressed and votes cast the exercise of their functions ".

This principle seeks to protect the freedom of expres-sion of the Parliamentary, avoid those possible constr-aints that may be derived from the consciousness of having to account (in a criminal, civil or disciplinary) the activity carried out in Parliament.

As for the opinions expressed outside Parliament, in the past it was questionable whether the lawmaker was to them covered by absolute immunity.

Today the matter is governed by art. 3 of the L. 140/2003, that the protection provided for in paragraph 1 of Article 68 of the Constitution applies not only for the work done in Parliament, but also "for any other inspection activities, dissemination, criticism and complaint policy, related to the function of parliamentary, performed outside the Parliament.

What is relevant for the purposes of absolute immunity is , thus, the necessary link with the "functions" of the Parliament, namely the functional scope within which the act  belong to regardless of its communicative content, which may be as varied, but in any case must represent actual exercise of their functions of members of the Chambers (C. cost., 16 April 2004 n. 120).

b)-The criminal immunity. Article. 68, 2nd co., Cost. Establishes that "Without the authorization of their respective House, no member of Parliament may be subjected to personal or home search, nor may they be arrested or otherwise deprived of liberty or kept in detention, except to enforce a final conviction, or if caught in the act of committing a crime for which It is scheduled for the mandatory arrest  in flagrancy “

With this new version of article. 68, introduced by the Constitutional Law 10.29.1993, n. 3, is allowed: submit MPs to investigations, without the need to obtain the prior agreement of the Chamber to which he belongs; stop the parliamentary, when there is a final conviction; take in stopping the parliamentary, if caught in the act of committing a crime for which there is the mandatory arrest in flagrance (art. 380 Criminal Procedure Code): this option was however also provided by the previous wording of Article. 68 of the Constitution.

It is not allowed to the court (judicial authorities), without the prior authorization of the Chamber to which it belongs:

subject to personal or home search parliamentarian; arrest or otherwise deprive of liberty for the member of Parliament, except for the two above mentioned cases (final judgment and apprehension in the act); conduct wiretaps  (intercettazioni) of conversations or communications and seizure (sequestro) of correspondence;

the allowance. Article. 69 Cost. Establishes that: "Members of Parliament shall receive a compensation/allowance established by law"

The compensation/allowance, with the allocation of a sum of money (which can not be seen as compensation), aims to ensure the dignity and economic independence of the parliament. It's made of a fixed allowance and a per diem mobile cover expenses for trips to Rome, determined lump sum

The joint sitting of Parliament

The Constitution, by the Parliament as a complex organ, also provides for the joint sitting of Parliament.

Art. 55, paragraph 2: Parliament meets in joint session of the members of both Houses only in those cases established by the Constitution.

The functions assigned strictly by the Constitution to Parliament in joint session are:

a)-the election of the President of the Republic (art. 83);

b)-the oath of the President of the Republic (art. 91);

c)-impeachment of the President of the Republic for high treason or plots against the Constitution (art. 90);

d)-the election of a third 1/3 of the members of the Council of the Judiciary (art. 104);

e)-the election of a third of the constitutional judges (art. 135);

f)- compiling down the list of forty people including judges among which they must be drawn aggregates called to intervene in proceedings of impeachment against the President of the Republic, before the Constitutional Court (Art. 135).

The Parliament in joint session is chaired by the Speaker of the House (Art. 63, paragraph 2 of the Constitution.) And uses the rules and structures of the Chamber of Deputies, subject to the right (never exercised) to adopt its own regulations.

The functions of Parliament

There are many functions performed by the Chambers.

Beside a legislative function properly, which has already been written about the sources of law, in fact, the Constitution confers on the Chambers additional functions:

Address and political control,

Nature of election

judicial and prosecution,

as well as purely instrumental.

The direction and political control

With the guidance and political control are determined by purposes of National policy , they choose the means of achieving them and exercise control on the activities of the Government.

Included in this function, along with some types of laws (so-called approval and authorization), the inspections, which can be implemented both in the Assembly and in the Commission; the cognitive activities, some of which are preconditions for the performance of inspections, others maintain their own autonomy, ensuring a close relationship between Parliament and civil society; acts of political direction, among which, are motions, resolutions, agendas; and special procedures, among which include review of the judgments of the Constitutional Court, the link with the European Communities and other international bodies and considering petitions.

Once obtained the confidence, the government implements its program under the direction and control of the Parliament. Typical acts of political deal with unicameral characters are:

the motion, which seeks to promote a resolution of the House and is the request, made by individual members of Parliament in the House to which they belong, to proceed to debate and vote on a particular subject on which a previous interpellation had left them unsatisfied. It can also be placed, regardless of previous interpellations, should promote it at least ten Members or a chairman of a group or eight senators;

The resolution, which is the political act par excellence. It can turn a debate triggered by a motion or a notice of the government and can be voted on in the room or in committee;

the agenda of education to the Government, which is part of a legislative process, committing the government to give some meaning to the norms that are approved or to take certain measures related to the text of the law under discussion.

Characters are more properly inspection instead:

Question: is the demand made in writing to a parliamentary question to the Government or to a Minister about the knowledge of a given situation: it asks that if the Government or the Minister is or is not aware of that fact, if that fact is true or false, and what steps will be taken (Art. 128 Reg. Cam. and art. 145 Reg. Sen.).

As a rule the Government shall reply orally in the room or in committee (in the home, that is, where the questioner requires) and the questioner may respond briefly to declare themselves satisfied or not. There are also questions to immediate response, in which the dialogue is extended to other parliamentarians over the questioner, and questions for written answer, in which the answer is given in writing no chance to reply;

the interpellation: is the demand made in writing to a parliamentary to question the Government or to a Minister about the motives or intentions of political conduct held to a given issue; aims, ie, to obtain a position by the Government (art. 136 Reg. Cam. and art. 154 Reg. Sen.).

The interpellation is discussed in the room, in the presence of the representative of the government: if the ' questioner is not satisfied with the explanations provided can transform the interpellation in motion. The reform of the regulations of the Chamber of Deputies (1997) introduced the urgent interpellations (art. 138bis) .The feature of these instances, which are submitted by a chairman of a group or by at least 30 deputies, is the swiftness of the period of time scheduled for their implementation. The procedure for interpellations is urgent, and, however, is the same for those laid down for ordinary iterpellations art. 138. The regulation states that every President of the group may enter two urgent interpellations per month, while each deputy one.

Al Senate, however, in cases of particular urgency is possible to resort to the challenges with proceedings statements, which may be submitted by one tenth of the members of the Assembly (art. 156a). This institute has been introduced with the reform of the Rules of the Senate of 1988, to curb the amount of interpellations and providing a limit to the number of instances that can be subscribed for each year (six for each Senator);

the parliamentary inquiry, governed by art. 82 Const., Is a survey prepared by each House in order to acquire necessary knowledge in order to a matter of public interest.

Although the power of inquiry is attributed to both Houses separately, commissions posso- not also be bicameral. To carry out investigations, each House shall appoint a committee with criteria proporzionaistici, that respects, that is, the composition of the political forces present in it.

The electoral functions

In the electoral functions within the activities of election of members of other organs:

 - Election of the President of the Republic; election of five judges of the Constitutional Court;

-ELECTION of 8 members of the Supreme Judicial Council;

-choice citizens including aggregates drawn judges of the Constitutional Court;

ELECTION of 4 members of the presidential council of administrative justice;

ELECTION of the 4 components of the guarantor for the protection of personal data.

-In Addition, the Presidents of the two chambers have the task of choosing, in agreement, two members of the Board of the military judiciary, foreign to the same military judiciary;

The functions of the courts and prosecution (le funzioni giurisdizionali e di accusa)

Functions materially judicial or prosecution include activities aimed at putting the condemnation of the President of the Republic and to return it to trial before the Constitutional Court.

The decision on setting up the condemnation of the President of the Republic for the crime of high treason and against the Constitution is adopted by the Parliament in joint session.

The constitutional law of 16 January 1989 n. 1, it planned by changing the text of art. 12 of the Constitutional Law of 11 March 1953 n. 1, that this resolution is approved by the Parliament on the report of a committee (and not, therefore, a Commission for proceedings for the prosecution) formed by members of the Senate and the Chamber competent for permission to proceed.

When it was resolved to initiate impeachment of the President of the Republic, the Constitutional Court may order the suspension from office.

That legislation is extended to the alleged participation of the Prime Ministers, Ministers, and other subjects in the crimes provided for by art. 90 of the Constitution.

In relation to offenses under art. 90 Cost. Committed by the President of the Republic (and high treason against the Constitution), the law 05/06/1989, n. 219, has explicitly stated that, in those proceedings, does not require any permission. The aforesaid Law 219/89 has also regulated the powers of investigative Committee.

The outcome of its investigations, which, as a rule, can not exceed a period of five months, the Committee if it considers that the offense is different from those provided by art. 90 Const., Declares itself incompetent; It may also require the filing of the proceedings if it considers manifestly unfounded news of crime. Otherwise, it presents a report to Parliament.

With regard to the procedure provided for ministerial crimes, remember that the referendum dell'8-11-1987 abolished the commission cd investigator (body composed of deputies and senators and, therefore, too politicized to "administer justice"), to which belonged investigate notitiae criminis which came to the presidency of the Chambers of any crimes committed by the ministers.

Constitutional Law 1/1989 has extended, in fact, the ordinary jurisdiction to cases of ministerial crimes.

L. 05/06/1989, n. 219, integrating the Constitutional Law. 01/16/1989, n. 1, has harmonized the procedure that the ordinary courts should follow for offenses according to the ministerial rules and institutions in the Code of Criminal Procedure.

In the event that the Minister he also holds the post of parliamentary authorization it is up to the Senate of the Republic (art. 5, Constitutional Law. 1/89).

Functions purely instrumental

Among the instrumental activities or important in making something happen, finally, we can remember:

Activities of self-organization;

Activities relating to the determination (go’aan) of the legal position of individual MPs;

Regulatory activities, internal administrative and procedural.

Activities of investigation.

President of the Republic

The President of the Republic is the organ summit that, in a system such as the Italian type of Republican, assumes the role of head of state.

The President of the Republic can take in modern democratic systems two different roles:

1. to constitutional body prominent, owner of important functions and government policies, which puts it in a leading position in the system (in the Republics of presidential, like the United States, this position is justified by the fact that the President is elected directly by the people);

2. to constitutional body impartial, equidistant from the traditional functions, with powers of impulse control, restraint and make sure the proper functioning of the other powers of the state.

The second is the route followed by our Constituent Assembly, which has drawn a picture of the head of state  which normally compete mere functions of control and symbol.

The insufficient provisions in the Constitution dedicated to the figure and the choice of leaving the Italian form of government very indefinite, however, means that, when the political climate so requires and there are difficulties in creating majorities and stable Governments, the President takes a more active role and penetrating.

The President of the Republic is a Monocratic body (the only "state power" not to be collegial), with functions unbiased (eex laheen) and impartial position (dacad ah), ie outside and above the various branches of government and the functions they represent, with the task to control and facilitate the operation of the entire constitutional mechanism. It is in charge of who regularly attributes the art. 87 of the Constitution.

Election procedures and duration:

Article. 83 and 85 providing for the election procedures and duration:

Art. 83  "The President of the Republic is elected by Parliament in joint session of its members.

Three delegates from every Region elected by the Regional Council so as to ensure the representation of minorities. The Valle d'Aosta has only one delegate.

The election of the President of the Republic is by secret ballot with a majority of two thirds of the assembly. After the third ballot is sufficient absolute majority ".

Art. 85. "The President of the Republic is elected for seven years.

Thirty days before the expiration of the term, the President of the Chamber of Deputies shall summon a joint session of Parliament and the regional delegates to elect the new

President of the Republic".

If the houses are dissolved or have less than three months to their dissolution, the election shall be held within fifteen days of the meeting of the new houses. They have since extended the powers of the President in office. "

Art. 91. The President of the Republic, before taking office, take an oath of allegiance to the Republic and to uphold the Constitution before Parliament in joint session.

The particular composition of Parliament in joint session supplemented by regional representatives is to emphasize materially and the Head of State represents national unity, putting the regions to the heart of the constitutional state.

The qualified majority for the first votes is required because it is prefered that President of the Republic, as an impartial body and super parties, can receive a number consensus wider than normally expected for the majority government.

Subsequently the three ballots, however, is expected to be an absolute majority (half of the votes plus one) to avoid prolonging the election of the Head of State with the resulting possibility of diminishing before the public prestige of the person who will be elected.

Article. 84 foresees the eligibility requirements and defining its status:

"It can be elected President of the Republic every citizen who has attained fifty years of age and enjoys civil and political rights.

The office of President of the Republic is incompatible with any other office.

Compensation (magdhow) and endowments (deeq) of the President are established by law. "

To assure the President of the Republic's economic independence, the are also awarded:

Allowance: it consists of a bonus due to his personal performance;

The equipment: is for expenses related to the operation of the Presidency of the Republic.

Temporary impediment and deputizing

Article. 86 governs the case of temporary impediment and deputizing :

"The functions of the President of the Republic, in any case that he can not perform them, shall be exercised by the President of the Senate.

In the event of permanent incapacity or death or resignation of the President of the Republic, the President of the Chamber of Deputies shall elect a new President of the Republic within fifteen days, except for the longer term provided for if the houses are dissolved or have less than three months to their dissolution.

Articles 87 and 88 give the functions:

Art. 87. The President of the Republic is the head of state and represents national unity.

It can send messages to the Houses.

It calls elections for the new houses and fixes their first meeting. Authorizes the presentation to the houses of draft laws initiated by the Government.

Promulgates laws and issues decrees having the force of law and regulations. Call popular referendum in the cases provided by the Constitution.

Appointment, in cases established by law, state officials.

Accredit and receive diplomatic representatives, and ratify international treaties which have, where required, been authorized by the Houses.

Has command of the armed forces, chairs the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, declares a state of war decided by the Chambers. It presides over the Supreme Judicial Council.

He may grant pardons and commute sentences. It confers the honors of the Republic.

Art. 88. The President of the Republic, having heard the Presidents, dissolve the Chambers or also only one of them.

He may not exercise this right during the last six months of his term, unless

It coincide wholly or partly with the last six months of Parliament.

With his functions the President interferes with all the powers of the state, serving as a subject of balance and unifying moment the republican system.

Of particular importance is the function of the dissolution of Parliament

The Constitution merely regulate the procedural aspects, keeping silent about cases of dissolution.

It must be assumed that they are essentially two cases in which you may proceed to the early dissolution:

-when Chambers fail to fast any government crise (government crisis "incurable");

-when the President did not realize that has failed the relationship between the parliamentary majority of the electorate.

Articles 89 and 90 deal with liability and the related establishment of ministerial counter-signature:

Art. 89. No act of the President of the Republic is valid if it is not signed by the proposing ministers, who assume responsibility.

The acts which have legislative strength and those laid down by law shall be countersigned also by the President of the Council of Ministers.

The President of the Republic is not responsible for the acts performed

except for high treason or plots against the Constitution.

In such cases the President is put impeached by Parliament in joint session, with an absolute majority of its members.

In our system the President of the Republic is subject to political and legal responsibility.

Although the Constitution does not talk specifically, it must be held that the head of state is subject to the sole political responsibility widespread.

Article. 90 of the Constitution states that the President of the Republic is not responsible for acts committed in the performance of duties, except for high treason and against the Constitution.

However, because of all legal acts, in practice, a person must be held accountable, Article. 89 Cost. Establishes that no act of the President of the Republic is valid if not countersigned by the Ministers is proposing that it take responsibility.

With these words the rule is intended to refer to relevant Ministers on matters from time to time covered by the acts of the President of the Republic.

Only when acts coming presidential government initiative, the competent ministers will also be those proponents.

Therefore, the responsibility of the acts falls on presidential Ministers countersign them, unless such acts do not constitute one of the crimes provided for by art. 90 Const., That is high treason and against the Constitution.

The crimes of high treason against the Constitution are difficult to define, since they are indeterminate cases, leaving wide discretion in the assessment of their configurability.

These crimes, in fact, are not regularly in the Criminal Code: the President of the Republic, therefore, does not apply Article. 25 of the Constitution which provides that "no one can be punished except by virtue of a law already in force before the offense was committed.“

L 'art. 90 Cost. Constitutes, therefore, a rupture or break of the Constitution, that is to say a constitutional discipline that is at odds with another discipline or principle contained in the same text, or at least an exception to the general provisions of art. 25 Cost.

Specifically, we can still define high treason as any willful misconduct that, offending the internal and international personality of the state, constitutes a breach of duty of loyalty to the Republic. The treason presupposes an agreement with foreign powers to undermine national interests or even to subvert the constitutional order.

The attack on the Constitution, however, identifies any willful misconduct aimed at subverting constitutional institutions or violate the Constitution. In particular Article 283 C.P. generally it defines this crime as "an act intended to change the state constitution or form of government by means not permitted under the Constitution of the State." With regard to crimes committed outside the exercise of his functions, the head of state meets (and is therefore attributable) like any other citizen. However, to ensure that the head of state can be the subject of indictments politically manipulated, in the silence of the Constitution, the doctrine holds that we can not proceed against him remains in office until the "admissibility" of prosecution.

                                        The legislative decrees

The legislative decrees are legal complex acts, established (costituiti da atti) by the enabling law and the legislative decree strictly or "statutory instrument". 

With the law of delegation, the Parliament gives in the Government the exercise of the legislative function.

With the decree delegated, the government exercises the legal function delegated by the Chambers.  

Art. 76: The exercise of the legislative function may not be delegated to the Government unless the determination of principles only for a limited time and for specified objects    

Article 76 of the Constitution allows Parliament to delegate the exercise of the legislative function to the Government.

According to the aforementioned article, it provides the criteria to be respected in the allocation of the legislative delegation which are:

The proxy (delegation) may be granted only by law and only to the Government in its complex;

The law of delegation shall define the objects on which the Government may exercise delegation;

The proxy must be exercised in a specific deadline under the law of delegation;

The law must establish the principles and criteria which the Government must adapt in the exercise of the delegation.

Besides the limits set by the Constitution, the law of delegation can introduce other so-called more limits, for example by requiring the government to listen to the opinion of the Parliamentarian commission

According to art. 14, paragraph 4, of Law no. 400 of 1988 in the case in which the delegation exceed the two-year period, the Government is obliged to seek the advice of the committees in order to pattern of decrees.

The character of the norms/rules interposed in the provisions of the law of delegation grants that during the trial of constitutionality (in sede di costituzionalita’), the Court can set up the illegality of the decrees in the event of their breach.

Recently it has become the practice of SO-CALLED “corrective legislative decrees ": the same law of delegation provides for the possibility, after one first period of implementation of the decree delegate, to meddle/interfere in the discipline, changing it on the basis of experience matured.

In practice, the use (il ricorso) of legislative delegation is becoming more common, not only, because of issues that require a series of technical evaluations, delegation allows the government to secure the cooperation of experts and technicians present at the ministries, but also because, (after the reduction of the role of the emergency decrees happened at the hands of the Constitutional Court with a series of decisions (in particular judgment no. 29/95 and no. 360/96, which see., infra)), the legislative decree is the principal mechanism for the government to exercise the legislative function.  

ART. 14. (Legislative decrees) :

"1. The legislative decrees adopted by the Government pursuant to Article 76 of the Constitution are issued by the President of the Republic with the designation of "decree", stating, in the preamble, the law of delegation, the resolution of the Council of Ministers and other implications of the procedure prescribed by the law of delegation.

2. The emanation of Legislative Decree must take place within the deadline set by the law of delegation; the text of the legislative decree adopted by the Government and 'forwarded to the President of the Republic, for the emanation at least twenty days before the deadline.

However, when the time required for the exercise of the delegation exceeds over two years, the government is required to ask for opinion of the chambers about  the scheme or plan of the delegated decrees.

The opinion is expressed by the competent permanent commissions of both chambers within sixty days.

The government must, within the successive thirty days, resubmit the text with its observation and eventual modification to the permanent commission for   definitive opinion  which must be expressed within thirty days.

Decree Law

The decree-law are acts having the force of law that may be adopted by the Government, under its responsibility, to deal with unforeseen circumstances ("extraordinary cases of necessity and urgency") that require action at the level of standardization with a primary discipline that are immediately applicable.

Art. 77. The Government may not, without delegation from the houses, issue decrees having the force of ordinary law.

When in extraordinary cases of necessity and urgency, the Government shall issue, under its responsibility, provisional measures having the force of law, and must the same day present them for conversion

The Houses which, even if dissolved, shall be summoned especially and shall assemble within five days.    

The decrees lose effect from their inception if they are not converted into law within sixty days from their publication.

The Houses may however regulate by law legal relationships arising out of decrees not converted.  

Decrees are approved by the Cabinet and issued by the President of the Republic. They must contain a statement of the extraordinary circumstances of necessity and urgency that led to the enactment.

The decrees are published in the Official Gazette immediately after their adoption and enter into force on the day of publication, provisionally saves Parliament for ratification.

The conversion of the decree into law must take place within 60 days, by the Chambers, risk losing effectiveness.

Control over the existence of the extraordinary cases of necessity and urgency justifying the use of the decree-law may be done by different organs:

President of the Republic as a preventive measure, that during the enactment of the Decree: it is an intervention rather exceptional, since, usually, the head of state does not interfere in the relations between government and Parliament;

Parliament. Article. 78 of the Rules of the Senate states that the bill of conversion is referred to the Committee responsible, to assess the existence of the conditions required by art. 77 Cost .; when the Commission expresses an unfavorable opinion for lack of these assumptions, it is up to the  Parliament to pronounce on the matter and, if not deemed to exist the need and urgency, the bill of conversion means rejected.

As for the regulation of the Chamber, art. 96bis gives the Boards of about matters relevant to control the existence of the conditions of necessity and urgency. Following that verification is possible that the Assembly is expressed decree negatively ;

Constitutional Court, in the next street, that at the time of any legal proceedings legitimacy. In this sense, the judgment no. 29/95 the Constitutional Court stated:

"The pre-existence of a factual situation involving the need and urgency to provide (...) is a requirement of constitutional validity of the adoption of that act, so that any apparent lack of that assumption configured as a defect of constitutional legitimacy of the decree-law (...) as a vice proceeding in the same conversion law, since the latter, if wrongly assessed ,the existence of conditions of validity in reality non-existent (...).

Therefore, there is no foreclosure or exclusion so that the Constitutional Court would do the examination of the decree-law and / or the conversion law in terms of compliance with the requirements of constitutional validity relative to the pre-existence of the conditions of necessity and urgency ...

". Article 15 of Law no. 400 of 1988 identifies a number of limits on emergency decrees. The decree-law cannot:

confer legislative powers; renew the provisions of decree-laws who have been denied converted into law by a vote of one of the chambers; regulate legal relationships arising out of decrees not converted; restore the effectiveness of the provisions declared invalid by the constitutional court for defects not related to the proceedings.

According to Article 77 Const., The decree-law must be converted into law within 60 days or lose its effectiveness at the outset (ex tunc).

In the past, however, hardly Chambers could meet that deadline, in particular due to parliamentary delay  and divisions within the majority.

Faced with the inertia of the legislature (di fronte alla inerzia del legislatore), the government had begun to play (il governo aveva cominciato a produrre ) in the new decrees the contents of decrees not converted to 60 days, possibly taking into account the amendments adopted by the Chambers (called reiteration/ repetition).

The reiteration of the decree-law had assumed alarming dimension or proportions, when considered the chain of decrees which consisted of ten-fifteen measures (provvedimenti), which means one or two years of "provisional discipline" and produce effects that often ended to be irrevocable/final.

This phenomenon was in direct conflict with Article 77, which construct the decrees as interim measures. Not surprisingly, the Law 400/88 had banned the practice of repetition of legal decrees not converted.

However, it was a limit contained in an ordinary law, such as overcome by the decree law of repetition, it has the same effect on the force of law.

The problem has been addressed and resolved by the Constitutional Court, that with a series of decisions, most recently with the judgment 360/96, it has ruled unlawful the repetition or duplication of the decree-law violates Article. 77, as they alter "the temporary nature of the emergency decrees.

" It has recurrence/repetition, according to the Court, when the decree reproduces without substantial changes to the contents of an unconverted decree

The only margin left for the government regards the example or situation in which the decree reiterated been remedied by Parliament during conversion (il decreto legge reiterato venga sanato dal parlamento in sede di conversione).

When the decree is not converted, it loses effectiveness from the start (ex tunc). In this case the legislator can intervene to regulate relations arising on the basis of its provisions through a special law of correction or validation.

On conversion may be introduced corrections to the text of the decree: the additional amendments (which add, that is, something to the content of the decree) have surely ex nunc, ie only operate in the future.

More problems arise, instead, the amendments that modify or abolish provisions of the decree.

In that case, the part of the decree unconverted loses effectiveness from the outset ex tunc, under Article. 77, paragraph 3 Const.

The decrees adopted by the Government in case of war

5.4 The decrees adopted by the Government in case of war

Art. 78. The houses decide on states of war and confer to government the necessary powers.

The doctrine holds that among the powers given to the government may also be a proxy of anomalous (delega anomala) to issue acts with the force of law.

The regulations of the constitutional organs

The constitutional autonomy is the main guarantee of the constitutional bodies from mutual interference, in defense of the principle of separation of powers.

In this context the regulatory autonomy takes a quite peculiar. In truth, however, only the regulatory power (potesta’ regolamentare) of either House of Parliament find its explicit recognition in the Constitution (art. 64), in contrast to what happens to the other constitutional bodies, which also adopt regulations governing its organization and functioning but the foundation of which must be inferred from the top position they occupy (Presidency of the Republic, Government and Constitutional Court).

Therefore they deserve a special attention to the parliamentary rules (I regolamenti parlamentari)..

The parliamentary rules are legal acts (atti giuridici)adopted by each House to regulate its organization and its inner workings, the legislative process, as well as relations with other constitutional bodies.

There are two types, in a relationship of hierarchy: general ones or Assembly and those c.d. “minor", adopted by Commissions (internal organs of the Chambers).

The Current regulations of Assembly were adopted in 1971, but have had a number of changes, sometimes very significant, in the following years.

The regulation find itself in the hierarchy of sources Immediately below the Constitution, and then in a relationship with the law of separation of their respective competence, the ordinary law can not regulate the constitutionally reserved for them.

To be considered sources of law in all respects.

The 1971 regulations providing for their publication in the Official Gazette and entered into force after a period of vacatio.

Article. 64, the first paragraph reads:   Art. 64.   Each House adopts its own rules by absolute majority of its members

The norm/rule provides that, the adoption and possible amendment of the regulations should be implemented by an absolute majority of its members.

In the Constituent Assembly, this larger majority required for the adoption of the ordinary law, was intended to safeguard the rights of minorities (Morta), to avoid that the rules of the game were at the care of the only majority government.

With the adoption of electoral systems for the rooms tend majority and, however, today this majority is no longer able to guarantee the minority MPs on the will of the ruling majority, as those wins the elections wins the absolute majority of seats.

The regulations of the Chambers, though they are sources submitted directly under the constitution, are not subject to review (sindacato) by the Constitutional Court, at least in the course of trial concerning the Constitutional legitimity (warning Mortati was different).

Executive Regulations

At one time it used to define the regulations as "administrative acts formally and essentially normative." This definition can still accept one for government regulations, which are therefore legal acts issued by the government with normative content, so general and abstract, placed in the hierarchy in a position of subordination to the law (secondary sources).

Traditionally it is said that, the foundation of regulatory powers is an express grant of competence (espressa attribuzione di competenza) made by the law to an administrative body.  It is believed that the regulatory power of the government, like the regulatory power of the regions and territorial bodies find their direct base from the Const

However, the new regulations resulting from the amendments introduced to Title V of Part II of the Constitution, it can be assumed that the regulatory powers of the Government, like the regional and local authorities, are now a direct basis in the Constitution, all 'art. 117. paragraph 6, for which:  

"The constitutional authority rests with the State in matters of exclusive legislation, subject delegated to the regions.

Regulatory powers shall be vested in the Regions in all other matters. ... ".  

This constitutional provision, if it escapes the government regulation of the power source general, being able to exercise its regulatory powers only in areas in which Parliament has the legislative power, nonetheless gives a constitutional basis to the regulatory powers.

It must instead be concluded that other public administration is in need of a specific legislative provision in order to exercise regulatory power (this applies to Ministers or to the devolved administrations of the State).

The regulations of these "other authorities", are placed under the hierarchical, as well as the law, even with government regulations (Art. 4 of the Civil Code).

The matter of government regulations is then governed by the law 400/88.

END OF CONSTITUTIONAL LAW BOOK